9 Ancient Stops Along the Silk Road

December 19, 2023

From China to Turkey, the shared cultural heritage and legacy of the Silk Road unites countries in the region to this day.

Nuts and spices at a Central Asian bazaar. Mirano. CC2.0

Stretching from southeastern Europe to East Asia, the Silk Road was a major trade route throughout medieval history. Trading lasted from 130 B.C. to 1453 A.D. when the Ottoman Empire boycotted trade with China and ended the exchange of goods. Some goods commonly traded on the Silk Road included produce, silk, paper, gunpowder and spices. As well as trading commodities, the Silk Road resulted in the transfer of goods, ideas and new technologies. Moving from Asia toward Europe, here are nine historical sites on the Silk Road.

Melons for sale in Kashgar. Gusjer. CC2.0

1. Kashgar, China

Kashgar, located in western China in the region of Xinjiang, is the traditional capital of Uyghur culture. The city provided a resting point for merchants on the Silk Road traveling to India, Pakistan or Central Asia. Surrounded by the fertile land of the Tarim Basin, large quantities of produce were grown and traded here, as well as textiles, leather and pottery. A noteworthy historical sight is the Ivan Bazaar, one of the most colorful structures in the city.

Over the past three years, China has received international criticism for suppressing the Uyghur Muslim population in Xinjiang, an act referred to as cultural genocide by many human rights advocates. A new detention center was opened north of Kashgar and has been used as recently as last January. Recent visits to Kashgar reveal that women in the city are not wearing traditional Islamic attire such as the hijab, and men have shaved off their beards. Additionally, all mosques have been closed or shut down. The current situation in Kashgar is cause for grave concern.

The Uyghur Human Rights Project is a nonprofit organization working to promote the human rights of Uyghurs in Xinjiang.

2. Karakorum, Mongolia

Founded by Genghis Khan in 1220, Karakorum is one of the most historically significant cities on the Silk Road. Located on one of the most traversed east-west routes of the Silk Road, many different ethnicities lived in the region, including Turkish, Uyghur, Chinese and Sogdian peoples. Many religions, including shamanism, Islam, Buddhism and Nestorian Christianity, were practiced here. The city was famous for producing metallurgy and quality ceramics in the 14th century using technology from China. Today, the annual Naadam festival in the modern city showcases traditional Mongolian sports and culture.

Registan square in Samarkand. Vstijn. CC2.0

3. Samarkand, Uzbekistan

Samarkand is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Central Asia, with settlements dating as far back as 1500 B.C. Recognized as one of the most important historical sites on the Silk Road, the city was a key trading center for merchants. Samarkand was also well known for craft and textile production throughout history, with the practice continuing to this day. Internationally recognized for its stunning Islamic architecture, some notable buildings include the Shah-i-Zinda, a mausoleum complex north of the city dating from the 14th to 16th century, and the Bibi Khanum Mosque which contains stunning tile work and architecture.

View of the Bamiyan Valley. Zielcke. CC2.0

4. Bamiyan, Afghanistan

Located in the Hindu Kush Mountains in central Afghanistan, the Bamiyan Valley served as a bridge between China and India on the Silk Road. Over the centuries, Bamiyan became a melting pot of different cultures and religions. Buddhist monks from China arrived in the fifth century, resulting in Bamiyan becoming a monastic center. Evidence of Buddhist influence in Bamiyan is in large caves carved into the valley wall. The two largest caves contained giant Buddha statues that were destroyed by the Taliban in 2001. There are over 100 caves in the mountainsides of the valley, containing preserved frescoes, paintings and seated Buddha figures.

Couple walking in Isfahan’s Naqsh-e Jahan Square. Stanley. CC2.0

5. Isfahan, Iran

Isfahan was the capital of two empires in Persia, the Seljuks and the Safavids. The city is renowned worldwide for its fascinating history and stunning architecture, leading to the Persian saying, “Isfahan is half the world.” The Seljuk Empire (1038-1194) led to the growth of the city, resulting in a blend of ethnic groups in the region, such as Arabs, Turks and Persians. A new Islamic architectural style developed during this period that was unique to Iran and is exemplified by the Jameh Mosque, also known as the Friday Mosque. Under the control of the Safavids (1502-1736), Isfahan was made the capital by Shah Abbas I and trade routes were altered to pass through the city. Architecture flourished during this period, including the famous city square known as the Naqsh-e Jahan. The city square includes the four aspects of Safavid polity: worship, commemoration, sovereign administration and trade. The Shah Mosque and Mosque of Sheikh Lotfollah are some of the most exquisite examples of Safavid architecture in the city.

Kapaleeshwarar Temple in Chennai. Mortel. CC2.0

6. Chennai, India

Chennai, formerly known as Madras under British rule, is the capital city of the state of Tamil Nadu in southern India. Nicknamed “the Gateway to South India” due to its key geographical position on the maritime Silk Road, Chennai acted as a resting place for merchants traveling from the “Spice Islands” of Indonesia back to the West. Although Chennai became a British settlement during colonial rule, the city’s unique cultural identity came about through decades of commerce and trade. The architecture in Chennai is telling of the city’s religious diversity, containing over 600 Hindu temples, mosques and churches, with buildings combining British neoclassical and north Indian Mughal architecture.

A sunset from Stone Town, Zanzibar. Floyd. CC2.0

7. Zanzibar, Tanzania

Located off the coast of East Africa, Zanzibar is a fascinating mix of East African, Arab, Indian, Persian and Western cultures. The island chain connected Africa and Asia through trade routes, bringing together merchants, traders and enslaved people. The Omani sultanate governed Zanzibar until 1861, and now the islands are a region of Tanzania. Centuries of tumultuous history have resulted in a rich cuisine, diverse population and unique architecture, as seen in the capital, Stone Town.

8. Muscat, Oman

Muscat, the capital of Oman, has a pivotal geographic position along the trade routes of the maritime Silk Road. The city is located in a natural inlet, providing a refuge for ships during bad weather and access to freshwater. Many merchants stopped here on their way to India or East Asia. Shipbuilding also became a lucrative industry for the city. Growing prosperous through trade, Oman received timber, textiles and other goods from Asia. Oman later gained control of Zanzibar for the slave trade, as well as for spices and ivory. Muscat became a melting pot of cultures, which are visible in the numerous architectural styles found throughout the city.

9. Bursa, Turkey

A city well known for silk production and trade, Bursa is located near the slopes of Mount Uludag in western Turkey. Turkish settlement in the region began in the 11th century, with Bursa eventually becoming the capital of the Ottoman Empire in the 14th century. Notable architectural buildings include the Green Mosque, the Grand Mosque, and the imperial tomb complexes of Ottoman rulers. The demand for silk began during the Byzantine period under Emperor Justinian, resulting in the importation of silk from China. Silk production in Bursa started in the 16th century and reached its peak in the 19th century. Today, silk trading still takes place in the old marketplaces of the Koza Han.

Although the Silk Road allowed individual economies to flourish, the implications of the trade routes go beyond borders. For centuries, the Silk Road resulted in the intermingling of different ideas, religions and cultures, providing an early preview of the globalized world we live in today.

Megan is a Turkish-American student at Wellesley College in Massachusetts studying Biological Sciences. Passionate about environmental issues and learning about other cultures, she dreams of exploring the globe. In her free time, she enjoys cooking, singing, and composing music.

Kyrgyzstan: From the Silk Road to the Celestial Mountains

June 8, 2022

A Central Asian country not known for its tourism, Kyrgyzstan boasts three Unesco World Heritage Sites. Each differs greatly in terms of its cultural significance, all providing different experiences for a traveler.

Wildlife in Kyrgyzstan. Charles Fred. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Kyrgyzstan is known for its beautiful scenery; for example, there are two stunning canyons in Kyrgyzstan: the Fairy Tale Canyon and the Konorchek Canyons. The Kyrgyz people lived a nomadic lifestyle well into the 20th century, and aspects of this rich culture are still recognizable in architecture today. For example, a traveler to Kyrgyzstan can see a Bozui house—a type of architecture distinct to the Kyrgyz—and learn how it is built. In terms of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the three sites are deeply historically and culturally significant, as well as breathtaking.

1. The Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor of the Silk Road

Section of the Great Wall of China in Kyrgyzstan. Matt Barber. CC BY 2.0.

The Chang’an-Tianshan Corridor is a section of the Silk Road, the most used collection of trade routes during ancient times, which primarily connected China with countries in Europe, the Middle East and East Africa. The Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in June of 2014, due to the historical significance of the Silk Road, which had been used until as late as the 16th century. The Chang’an-Tianshan Corridor in Kyrgyzstan is an especially interesting and important sector of the Silk Road due to its beauty, rocky terrain and historical significance. The Chang’an-Tianshan Corridor was used from the 4th through 16th century to transport mostly luxury goods, with its use beginning to facilitate trade between the Chinese and Roman empires. It was also very difficult to navigate due to its massive peaks and valleys—the climate of which ranges from snowy to arid to humid. In addition to natural sites, the corridor contains many cultural and historical destinations. Parts of the Chang’an-Tianshan Corridor run along the Great Wall of China. Additionally, there are several Buddhist temples, ancient palaces and tombs along the corridor.

2. The Sulaiman-Too Sacred Mountain

View of Sulaiman Too-Sacred Mountain from Osh. Christian Gawron. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Also located on the Silk Road, the Sulaiman-Too Sacred Mountain (located next to the city of Osh) was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2009. The Sulaiman-Too Sacred Mountain has been regarded for hundreds of years as a sacred destination, primarily in Islam, but also in religions and belief-systems that contain only some aspects of the Islamic faith. The mountain contains two reconstructed mosques from the 16th century, caves with ancient petroglyphs and many other sites for worship—17 of which are still in use today. One of the main non-Islamic groups which has historically worshiped at the Sulaiman-Too Sacred Mountain is the cult of the horse, which is reflected in much of the cave art.

3. The Tien-Shan Mountains

The Tien-Shan Mountains. Bruno Rijsman. CC BY-SA 2.0.

“Tien-Shan” in Chinese means “celestial.” The mountains may have gotten their name from their extremely high peaks; the highest points of the Tien-Shan mountains are also the highest points in all of Kyrgyzstan. The peaks in Kyrgyzstan were officially declared a World Heritage Site in 2016, although the parts of the mountains in China had been named a World Heritage Site in 2013. The Tien-Shan Mountains are mostly known for their diverse wildlife and for being home to several ethnic groups such as the Uyghur people and various Buddhist sects. While the oppression of the Uyghur people is not nearly as severe in Kyrgyzstan as it is in China, in recent years, there have been reports of violence from the Kyrgyz majority towards the Uyghur, as well as governmental interference in Uyghur political organizing. Despite Kyrgyzstan’s treatment of the Uyghur people, the Tien-Shan Mountains remain the home of many Uyghur people in the country. The mountains are covered in glaciers, many of which are threatened by climate change. This could change the entire geological landscape of the Tien-Shan mountains. Wildlife found on Tien-Shan include snow leopards and the Himalayan snowcock. Out of the three World Heritage Sites in Kyrgyzstan, the Tien-Shan Mountains is the most focused on the nature of Kyrgyzstan as opposed to the history featured in the other two sites.

5 Captivating Silk Road Sites to Visit in Central Asia

May 4, 2022

Stretching from China and the Far East to Europe and the Middle East, the Silk Road was once the world’s most important trade route.

The Mir-i-Arab Madrassa in Bukhara, Uzbekistan, showcases the Islamic architecture so prevalent along the Silk Road. Marco Verch. CC BY 2.0

It opened in 130 B.C. and remained in use for the next 1,500 years, leading to the rise of countless cities along its path. Though their significance has faded, the grandeur of Central Asia’s Silk Road cities continues to amaze all who visit.

1. Samarkand

A view of the Registan and its three madrassas in Samarkand, Uzbekistan. K3nna. CC BY 2.0

Undoubtedly the highlight of Uzbekistan, Samarkand was once one of the world’s premier cities. After his visit in 1333, the explorer Ibn Battuta called Samarkand “one of the greatest and finest of cities, and most perfect of them in beauty.” The city’s elegance is still revealed in the Registan, a courtyard surrounded by three marvelously beautiful madrassas, or Islamic schools. The distinctive tile work that covers the area’s buildings remains of the best examples of Islamic architecture in the world. Samarkand is also home to the Bibi-Khanym Mosque, once one of the largest in the Islamic world. Much of the mosque was destroyed by an earthquake in 1897, but glimpses of its original splendor still transport visitors back to its glory days in the 15th century.

2. Merv

The Great Kyz Kala, known as the “Maiden’s Castle,” is one of many crumbling fortresses in Merv. Gai Jorayev. CC BY-SA 4.0

Located in the far-off reaches of Turkmenistan, Merv’s broad religious and commercial influence once made it the third-largest city in the world. The Mongols ransacked Merv in 1221, and the city never recovered. Its extensive ruins remain, though, and amaze all who reach them. Fortresses, medieval walls, mausoleums and mosques have been uncovered, some dating back to 2500 B.C. Many of Merv’s ruins have not yet been preserved, so a visit here is a unique opportunity to see ancient history as it originally stood. One word of caution: gaining a tourist visa for Turkmenistan is notoriously difficult, so plan far ahead if arranging a trip.

3. Bukhara

The Kalyan Minaret stands above Bukhara’s Po-i-Kalyan complex in the center of town. Travelmag.com. CC BY 2.0

Holding much of Samarkand’s grandeur with far fewer crowds, Bukhara is one of Uzbekistan’s most compelling cities. Its prosperity as a Silk Road trading site led to the establishment of Bukhara as one of the intellectual and artistic hubs of Islamic civilization. The city’s prominent stature led to incredible sites such as the Po-i-Kalyan complex, Bukhara’s stunning town center. Po-i-Kalyan is home to an intricately designed mosque with 288 domes and 208 pillars, a still-in-use madrassa, and a minaret (Islamic tower) so impressive that Genghis Khan left it standing during his invasion of the city. Other must-visit spots include the Ark of Bukhara, an ancient fortress which offers stunning views of the city, and a bazaar where trading occurs much as it has for centuries.

4. Tash Rabat

Though it looks small from the outside, Tash Rabat is filled with a maze of rooms once used by Silk Road traders. Allan Grey. CC BY-SA 2.0

Situated almost 10,500 feet above sea level in Kyrgyzstan’s Tian Shan Mountains, Tash Rabat offered respite to weary Silk Road travelers along a challenging part of their journey. This still out-of-the way spot operated as a caravanserai, or roadside inn, throughout the 15th century. Though many caravanserais can be found along the Silk Road’s path, Tash Rabat stands out due to its stunning mountainous location and its labyrinthine layout. Archaeologists believe that Tash Rabat was originally a 10th-century Christian monastery, explaining its dark and imposing maze of rooms. Visitors often find the site to be mysterious and endlessly fascinating, and often combine it with horseback riding tours and yurt stays in the dramatic Kyrgyz countryside.

5. Khiva

Kalta Minor Minaret’s blue tiles strongly contrast with the sandstone buildings around it. Dan Lundberg. CC BY-SA 2.0

The final of Uzbekistan’s trio of Silk Road cities is Khiva, home to a narrow maze of historic treasures stretching back to the fifth century. One such spot is the Tash-Khauli Palace, an exquisitely designed structure with over 150 mesmerizing rooms and courtyards. Continued exploration leads travelers to Juma Mosque, held up by 200 uniquely designed wooden pillars. Khiva claims two minarets, the climbable Islam Khodja Minaret and the Kalta Minor Minaret, which is bathed in beautiful blue tiling. The best view in town, though, comes at the Kuhna Ark Watchtower, where the city’s sandstone walls brilliantly reflect light rays at sunset.

US Calls for Action Against Chinese for Treatment of Uyghur Muslims

May 21, 2020

Last week, the U.S. Senate passed the Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act of 2020 to seek justice for Uyghur Muslims forced into labor camps in China.

It is believed that the Chinese government’s placement of Uyghur Muslims in labor camps in Xinjiang province represents the largest mass detention of people since World War II. However, since 2017, there has been an international investigation into the matter. It is estimated by the United Nations that approximately 2 million Uyghurs have been placed into at least 28 camps.

Yet, when questioned about this activity, the government denies wrongdoing and explains that the purpose of the camps is vocational training for the minority group to increase its participation in the economy. The government staged a press conference of alleged former “civilians” who were at the camps to show that the camps helped transform their lives and ideologies. By transformation, it is implied that they were taught to give up Muslim practices and take on more “modern” Chinese ways. Family members who are living outside of China have spoken out against Chinese statements and helped expose the torture that may actually be taking place in these modern-day concentration camps.

The Uyghur people make up 60% of Xinjiang’s population, but are a minority in the rest of China. Specifically, they are of Turkish descent, and are often labeled as terrorists and religious extremists by the Chinese government. The name “Uyghur” is actually an umbrella term for multiple Muslim minorities that have been singled out. Many of those who have been targeted have been forcibly detained for reasons such as facial hair or even clothing.

In November 2019, United States senators called for sanctions against Chinese leaders for the detention of Uyghurs. However, due to the impeachment hearings of President Trump, the bill failed to get past the Senate floor. The U.S. is not the first country to bring attention to this human rights crisis. Xinjiang province sits along the path of China’s Belt and Road Initiative, a plan to expand trade throughout Asia and Europe by essentially revamping the Silk Road. The human rights violations against the Uyghurs have given pause to some countries about joining the project.

Uyghur women grieving over those who have been forcibly taken by Chinese government. Han Guan. CC 2.0

On May 14, the U.S. Senate passed the Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act of 2020. If enacted by President Trump, it would establish sanctions against China and its officials who are held responsible for inhumane acts ranging from the kidnapping of Muslims to the high rates of abuse and death taking place in the camps.The sanctions include placing restrictions on imports of goods made at these camps as well. The State Department would also be tasked with compiling a report detailing the conditions of these camps, which would be separate from the annual Human Rights and International Religious Freedom documents.

In light of the COVID-19 pandemic, Senate Republicans have taken up an agenda that questions many of the Chinese government’s practices. The Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act of 2020 is only one of many issues the U.S. is bringing up.

This is not the first case of Muslims being targeted in Asia. Back in August 2017, Rohingya Muslims faced persecution in Myanmar by the country’s Buddhist majority government on claims of terrorism, just like the Uyghur people. Similar to China, Myanmar’s government also refused to take responsibility for its actions.