The Supernatural Role of Masks in Nigeria’s Yoruba Tribal Culture

Julia Kelley

Whether the feminine celebration of the Gelede mask or the spiritual transformation through the Egungun mask, these cultural objects perform an imperative role in the Yoruba people’s religious culture. 

Egungun Festival Masks. Fermi12. CC BY-SA 4.0. 

African masks have been functionally used for thousands of years. Recognized for their supernatural qualities, they transform wearers into new entities, symbolize animal or ancestor spirits, mythological heroes, or moral values, and can even be a way of honoring specific individuals. Moreover, specific ceremonies and masks act as visual representations of local customs. With a vibrant music and dance tradition, the Yoruba people are known for their notable mask culture. The Yoruba are one of Nigeria’s largest ethnic groups, mainly concentrated in the southwestern part of the country but also found in smaller groups throughout Benin and Togo. For over 1,500 years, they have also been defined by their advanced urban kingdoms, strong economy and unique artistic tradition. Ceremonies are imperative to their way of life; vibrant festivals, rituals and weddings display cultural pride, celebrate history and connect the physical realm to the spiritual. Beyond the symbolic instruments and costumes used during these occasions, masks are also extremely vital due to their mystic transformative qualities.

Gelede Mask With Animal Figure. Daderot. CC0 1.0.

Gelede Dance. dave massie. CC BY 2.0.

Gelede Mask With Woman Figure. Kugbenu (Vervaardiging). CC0.

However, when and how masks are used depends on their corresponding festivals. The Gelede mask, for example, is used during the Gelede dance. This ceremony is performed as a way to pay tribute to the primordial mother Iyà Nlà and recognize women’s role in social organization and development. Retracing the history and myths of the people, the Gelede takes place annually after harvests and during times of drought and epidemics. The masks, adorned with intricate motifs and vibrant colors, are worn as a way to honor “mothers,” or good witches who have power over bad ones, in their efforts to protect the community from negative forces. Individual masks reflect local traditions, such as through unique facial markings or figures included on the masks. 

Epa Festival Mask. Beeldhouwer / sculptor: Jospeph Agbana. CC BY-SA 3.0.

Epa Mask With Warrior Figure. Unknown author. CC BY 3.0.

Large Epa Helmet Mask. Em-mustapha. CC BY-SA 4.0.

Epa masks are worn during yam harvest festivals by young male dancers as they leap onto mounds. The rigorous movements of this dance indicate the community’s fate over the next year; if the dancer successfully leaps, then all is well, but if not, sacrifices are made to the forces that made him fail. Leading up to these ceremonies, the masks are kept in shrines, where they are fed to increase their power and efficacy. Since they are believed to contribute to the wearer’s success, heavy weight and symbols associated with war are characteristic of these masks.

Ancestor Egungun Mask. Sailko. CC BY 3.0.

Egungun Festival. Fermi12. CC BY-SA 4.0.

Yoruba Egungun Mask. Daderot. CC0 1.0. 

One of the most important masks in their ritual culture, the Yoruban Egungun masks are worn to worship ancestors. These are used during Odun Egungun or “masquerade” festivals, during which men move through town wearing masks as they embody their ancestors. These masks act as a visual manifestation of those being depicted, offering members of the community the opportunity to strengthen their familial bonds and ask for protection or blessings. 

Yoruba Festival Music and Dance. Tunde Akangbe. CC BY-SA 4.0.

Developed over centuries, ceremonial masks remain a significant part of Yoruban culture. African masks have also become admired in museums worldwide for their intricate designs, but contemporary artists and historians have noted that they are exhibited mostly as ethnography. Moreover, African masks have inspired many well-known European artworks, most notably in Picasso’s 20th-century modernist paintings. This Westernization has helped shape stereotypes around African communities, decontextualizing their current cultural significance. However, as the Yoruba masks demonstrate, festivals recommence every year, and the masks continue to visually represent the community’s rich history and religious tradition.

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Julia Kelley

Julia is a recent graduate from UC San Diego majoring in Sociocultural Anthropology with a minor in Art History. She is passionate about cultural studies and social justice, and one day hopes to obtain a postgraduate degree expanding on these subjects. In her free time, she enjoys reading, traveling, and spending time with her friends and family.

The Fight Against a Sinking City: Jakarta’s Sea Wall

Julia Kelley

While Indonesia’s government seeks to build a large sea wall to protect Jakarta from detrimental floods, criticism in the name of environmental and economic loss urges them to look for other solutions.

Flooding Ciliwung River in Jakarta Region. World Meteorological Organization. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

On the northwest coast of Indonesia stands Jakarta, the country’s capital and largest city. Sitting upon a low, flat alluvial plain with swampy areas, Jakarta is notably susceptible to major floods every few years from its multiple rivers and the adjoining Java Sea. This is made worse by excessive groundwater extraction and rising global sea levels, which have seen a worldwide mean increase of about eight to nine inches since 1880 due to global warming. Rapid urbanization, population growth and a change in land use have crowded more and more people into high-risk floodplain areas, leaving thousands displaced and large parts of the city submerged underwater during these natural disaster events. Although the Indonesian government built a coastal wall in 2002 to combat this, its collapse in a storm only five years later renewed the call for protective measures against destructive flooding. A new mega-project began in 2014, outlining both the construction of a new 29-mile-long sea wall and the so-called “Giant Sea Wall.” This “Giant Sea Wall,” a 20-mile-long artificial island shaped like a Garuda bird, Indonesia’s national symbol, will not only block storm surges but is also planned to contain homes, offices and recreational facilities. 

This massive undertaking officially kicked off in February 2025 and is said by supporters to be key in dealing with the country’s land subsidence and flooding. Both President Prabowo Subianto and Minister of Infrastructure and Regional Development Agus Harimurti Yudhoyono claim that the project could save the government billions of dollars in disaster mitigation over the following 30 years. Despite this optimism, critics have come out against the large project, citing an array of detrimental economic and environmental issues that could result from construction. For example, many have noted how the proposed solution does not address the over-extraction of groundwater, which comes from excessive use by industrial and economic activities. In addition, the sea wall could disrupt marine biodiversity and, subsequently, the fishing industry, one of Indonesia’s strongest monetary sources. According to Maleh Dadi Segoro, a coalition of environmental and social groups, the sea wall would potentially narrow and close fishing catch areas, disrupting marine ecosystems and threatening the livelihoods of those who depend on them for food and income. Jakarta already faces low water quality in its rivers and canals, causing sewage and a lack of proper sanitation. Closing off Jakarta Bay for this sea wall, critics say, would turn the water into a “septic tank” or “black lagoon,” which necessitates a stronger water sanitation system immediately. 

Controversy stirred up by the sea wall proposal has thus solicited alternative solutions. There has been an interest in using the water to its advantage, rather than working against it. This would entail diverting surplus waters, including that from floods, to surrounding farm areas where it could be stored. Restoration has also been widely proposed, as described by professor of oceanography Alan Koropitan for The Guardian: “If, instead, we can restore the bay and its polluted waters, that would mean something good for civilization in Indonesia.” Among all these suggested plans, environmental, social and economic protection are set at the center, urging the Indonesian government to rethink its monumental and costly plan. 

GET INVOLVED:

Those looking to help support those affected by floods and flood prevention in Indonesia can do so by checking out relief organizations, such as The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies’ Disaster Response Emergency Fund, Peace Winds and Mercy Corps, all of which provide immediate and long-term support. Furthermore, individuals interested in combating sea level rise can look into taking actions that counter global warming, including using renewable energy, reducing greenhouse gas usage, considering electric vehicles, recycling, decreasing food waste, keeping the environment clean, or getting involved with local communities and government to organize plans and legislation. 

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Julia Kelley

Julia is a recent graduate from UC San Diego majoring in Sociocultural Anthropology with a minor in Art History. She is passionate about cultural studies and social justice, and one day hopes to obtain a postgraduate degree expanding on these subjects. In her free time, she enjoys reading, traveling, and spending time with her friends and family.

Buddhism in Tibet and the Sacred Dzogchen Caves

Julia Kelley

Spotting the landscape of Eastern Tibet are the Sacred Dzogchen Mountain Caves, natural formations that have been revered for centuries as sites of historic Buddhist enlightenment. 

Entrance to Pilgrimage Road in Dzogchen Monastery. Mario Biondi. CC BY-SA 4.0.

Found in the mountains of Eastern Tibet, also known as Kham, is the Rudam Valley. Here, 4,000 meters (13,123 feet) above sea level, plateaus imprinted with lakes and waterfalls are home to a population of more than 850,000 people. Tibetan Buddhist monasteries dot the landscape, reflecting the valley’s religious significance and contributing to its diverse culture. Most notably, in the Holy Dzogchen Area, surrounding communities have their own cultural expressions marked by distinct seasonal ceremonies and local traditions. The population in the Holy Dzogchen Area widely practices Vajrayana Buddhism, a form of Tantric Buddhism that emphasizes one’s potential to achieve enlightenment in a single lifetime rather than through many. This doctrine is taught in the Dzogchen Monastery, which offers a religious education to young people who desire a monastic life and serves as the main monastery for hundreds of branches throughout Tibet. 

Guru Rimpoche Cave. Anjan Kumar Kundu. CC BY 4.0.

The Holy Dzogchen Area’s beauty and devout culture are further exhibited through its natural cave complex, known as the Sacred Dzogchen Mountain Caves. From mountains to valleys, the thousands of caves that make up this system are a powerful feature of the local religious practice. The significance of these natural formations can be traced back to a series of influential Dzogchen Vajra masters who lived in them to reach enlightenment. Buddhism was first introduced to Tibet in the 7th century C.E., and was not translated until 641 C.E., when Tibetan king Songtsen Gampo unified the region and converted to Buddhism with his marriage to two Buddhist princesses. The king also invited important Buddhist masters, Padmasambhava and Shantarakshita, to teach the doctrine throughout the country. This included instruction in Dzogchen, an advanced system of meditation that gives the Holy Dzogchen Area its name. These leaders and their students utilized the isolated and serene nature of the surrounding caves to facilitate their enlightenment. The Snow Mountain caves, Shinje and Senge Druppuk caves, and Canyon caves are only a few of the sites that have become revered for their religious history, as Vajra masters such as Shri Singha and Padmasambhava lived and meditated in their solitude to achieve high realization. 

Sacred Cave Interior. slobo486. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

This long history as a Buddhist religious symbol has made the Dzogchen cave system a common pilgrimage route. Beyond the caves, the entirety of the Dzogchen Area has become associated with enlightenment due to these countless sacred sites. Many pilgrims first journey to the Dzogchen Monastery, where they can practice retreats and meditations in the monastery’s retreat center. From there, devotees travel to surrounding temples and sacred caves, walking in the footsteps of Buddhist leaders. On their blog, Yowangdu Experience Tibet, travelers Lobsang and Yolanda write about their personal experience with the pilgrimage. They describe one of the caves as “a sacred spot where the great Buddhist master had honed his wisdom and compassion in decades of meditation” and where “he had written the text that had moved and inspired” them, echoing Dzogchen followers’ continued belief and devotion to these holy spaces. 

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Julia Kelley

Julia is a recent graduate from UC San Diego majoring in Sociocultural Anthropology with a minor in Art History. She is passionate about cultural studies and social justice, and one day hopes to obtain a postgraduate degree expanding on these subjects. In her free time, she enjoys reading, traveling, and spending time with her friends and family.

The History of Favelas, Brazil’s Impoverished Towns

Since their emergence in the 19th century, favelas have faced continuous struggles with poverty and crime, a symbol of the tension between Brazil’s government and its underrepresented communities.    

Favela of Telegrafo. patano. CC BY-SA 3.0. 

Scattered throughout Brazil are built-up communities known as favelas. These towns, principally found on the outskirts of large cities like Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo, are settlements marked by their unique urban development. While they are often associated with drugs, crime and poverty, these neighborhoods are a symbol of Brazil’s complex history. 

Finding their origins in the late 19th century, favelas emerged amid a period of tumultuous political and social change in Brazil. They initially formed after the country abolished slavery in 1888. With a large number of impoverished former slaves left homeless and unemployed, they started forming temporary shelters. These were mainly squatter settlements near their work, which was often found in cities. Over the years, these communities grew in number and size. However, it was only after the Canudos War in 1898 when they became the large settlements we know today. The War on Canudos, a deadly civil war that saw a massacre in the small town of Canudos, left almost 20,000 ex-soldiers homeless after their return from the conflict. With nowhere to live, the group established the first favelas in the federal state of Bahia. 

As Brazil’s class divide grew, more favelas popped up from the 1940s to the 1970s, becoming more organized with newly created residents’ associations serving as communicators between the towns and the government. Collaboration between the two led to agreements about water and electricity accessibility and construction investment, playing a large role in the favelas’ maintenance. However, rising politicians during this era also targeted the favelas for political gain, stereotyping their existence as slums breeding disease, illiteracy, crime and moral corruption. Many favelas were “removed” as a result, but other methods were sought out to build up and sustain the communities’ infrastructure. Despite various programs intending to improve buildings, Brazil’s economic crisis led to failed attempts at providing adequate housing in many areas. At the same time, cocaine markets were growing globally, and Brazil became a prominent drug producer and transit point between European and U.S. markets. These criminal groups formed during the 1980s and solidified in the early 2000s, attracting more police attention to the neighborhoods. 

In 2022, about 8.1% of Brazil’s population lived in favelas. Because of their densely built-up infrastructure and continuous struggles with crime and drugs, favelas have also become synonymous with slum life. Widespread poverty, in particular, has grown to be favela residents’ largest struggle, with economic hardship producing limits on food, healthcare and education. The government has proposed various methods to help tackle these ongoing issues and support the overall conditions of these communities. Authorities have introduced programs to help residents: setting up training programs, providing low-interest loans or materials to construct accommodations and building facilities such as health clinics or schools. Despite these attempts, favela residents still lack full sociopolitical representation and face police violence. Thus, activism in favela communities remains imperative, as residents continue to search for peace and draw attention to the need for social development and increased rights. 

GET INVOLVED:

Residents living in favelas struggle against police brutality, discrimination and stark poverty daily. Those looking to help address these issues can do so in several ways, including through making donations. Outreach organizations include: The Favela Foundation, focusing on the development of sustainable social and educational programs; Catalytic Communities, an NGO based in Rio de Janeiro bringing sustainable programs and legislative support to favelas; and The Gerando Falcões Fund of BrazilFoundation, bringing education and economic development to the favelas. Supporting favela locals in their fight to speak out against systemic violence is also very important. Using social media to follow, share and repost activism can help circulate news and reframe the stereotypes usually associated with favela communities. 

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Julia Kelley

Julia is a recent graduate from UC San Diego majoring in Sociocultural Anthropology with a minor in Art History. She is passionate about cultural studies and social justice, and one day hopes to obtain a postgraduate degree expanding on these subjects. In her free time, she enjoys reading, traveling, and spending time with her friends and family.

6 Surf Hostels Around the World

These budget-friendly accommodations offer more than a bed—they provide a community connection that unites oceans. 

Main entrance of Playa Jaco, Costa Rica. Armando Olivo Martín del Campo. CC BY-SA 4.0 

Wake up to crashing waves, grab your board, and paddle out. Surf hostels are not just places to rest your head; they’re miniature global hubs where travelers, surf enthusiasts and adventure seekers converge. Whether you’re a solo backpacker or part of a group, surf hostels foster friendships and shared experiences such as communal dinners, bonfires on the beach, and impromptu jam sessions with fellow travelers.

Hostels often offer surfboard rentals and lessons, making it an easy way to pick up new skills. Each hostel has its unique flavor, influenced by its location and culture. From Bali’s laid-back vibes to Portugal’s rugged beauty, you’ll taste local cuisines, explore places through their waters and witness unforgettable sunrises and sunsets.

 1. 99 Surf Lodge - Popoyo, Nicaragua 

Surfing in Popoyo, Nicaragua. Dylan Wooters. CC BY-SA 2.0 

99 Surf Lodge in Popoyo, Nicaragua, is a sleek, low-slung modernist hotel that perfectly balances style and unpretentiousness. Situated right on the legendary surf beach of Popoyo, it offers a unique blend of comfort and adventure in a region that is hospitable yet not overdeveloped. Each room boasts an ocean view, allowing guests to check surf conditions from the comfort of their beds. The bungalows and suites, which can accommodate up to four guests, feature private verandas to enjoy the constant offshore breeze. Despite its design-hotel aesthetics, 99 Surf Lodge remains affordable, making it a great value destination. Surfing is the main attraction, but guests can enjoy various water activities and nearby mountain hikes. The hotel’s gym and the on-site restaurant, Taberna 99, provide additional amenities to fuel and rejuvenate guests. With yoga classes, retreats and two seasonal restaurants, including Mesquite, 99 Surf Lodge ensures a memorable stay. Whether surfing, dining or simply relaxing, this beachfront retreat perfectly blends modern comfort and natural beauty. 99 Surf Lodge is a higher-end surf hostel and rates start at $130 per night. 

2. San Sebastian Surf Camp (Stoke Travel) - San Sebastian, Spain

Scenic view from the comb of the wind ride to the Ondarreta beach. Laura Peña. CC BY-SA 3.0 

San Sebastian Surf CAMP, an all-inclusive surf house in the Spanish Basque Country, offers an exhilarating blend of surf, yoga, and vibrant nightlife. Since 2005, Stoke Travel’s Surf Camps have been the go-to destination for exploring San Sebastian and the Basque Country, providing an unbeatable combination of surfing and partying. Now located in a converted Basque farmhouse near Zarautz, the camp has only improved. The communal atmosphere is enhanced by staff who double as surf instructors and prepare all meals, ensuring a seamless experience. The basic package includes dorm accommodation in the scenic Pagoeta nature reserve, healthy homemade meals, daily pickups to Zarautz, introductory surf lessons, and daily yoga classes. Guests can also enjoy unlimited access to surf equipment, local activities, and an open bar for a small fee. With hearty home-cooked meals, welcoming vibes, and awesome parties, this surf camp promises an unforgettable experience. San Sebastian Surf CAMP offers a unique and immersive adventure in a stunning natural setting. There is a two-day minimum and rates start at $50 per night. Get in touch with San Sebastian Surf Camp (Stoke Travel) here. 

3. Hostel & Surf Camp 55 - Ericeira, Portugal

Surfing at Praia do Matadouro. Web Summit. CC BY 2.0 

Hostel & Surfcamp 55 in Ericeira, Portugal, is a fantastic destination for surfing beginners, embodying the slogan “When you feel the Ericeira 55 vibe you don’t want to leave…” Overlooking the ocean and located in the heart of Ericeira, this unique hostel offers a true surf and travel experience. It accommodates up to 22 guests in seven thematic rooms with sea views, providing a relaxed and colorful atmosphere. Guests can enjoy surf lessons, guiding and equipment on-site, as well as daily yoga retreats. The communal lounge area is perfect for socializing, and the shared kitchen allows guests to prepare their own meals or join themed dinners and wine tasting sessions. Located just a five-minute walk from the beach, Hostel 55 also offers free WiFi and various discounts on local activities, including bicycle and board rentals. With clean facilities, friendly staff, and a vibrant communal feel, Hostel & Surfcamp 55 ensures an unforgettable stay in the picturesque fishing village of Ericeira. The nightly rate is $40 and you can contact them here Hostel & Surf Camp 55.  

4. Farm Hostel - Canggu, Indonesia

Young surfers in Bali, Indonesia. Tiket2. CC BY 2.0 

The Farm Hostel in Canggu, Indonesia, offers an exceptional experience for travelers. With five different types of dorms, all air-conditioned and equipped with en-suite bathrooms, the hostel ensures maximum comfort and privacy. Each bed is larger than average, featuring curtains, a reading light, an international power outlet, and a large locker for personal belongings. Located just 1.2 miles from Batu Bolong Beach and Canggu Beach, The Farm Hostel provides accommodations with an outdoor swimming pool, free private parking, a garden and a shared lounge. Guests can enjoy free WiFi, a bar, and a restaurant serving international cuisine with vegetarian, dairy-free, and vegan options. The hostel also offers a paid airport shuttle service. 

Nestled at the end of a peaceful cul-de-sac surrounded by rice fields, banana trees, bamboo and a running stream, The Farm Hostel is a tranquil retreat. Despite its serene location, it is just minutes away from great surf spots, tasty food, vibrant nightlife, and excellent coffee. Since its opening in 2015, The Farm has grown from 22 beds to 118 beds, featuring nine mixed dorms and seven female dorms. With high-speed internet, a small breakfast included, two pools, multiple common areas and a central location in Canggu, The Farm Hostel is a must-stay destination in Bali and rates start at $36 per night. 

5. Rosemary Hostel - Florianópolis, Brazil

Praia Mole, Florianopolis, SC, Brasil. Papa Pic from Eldorado, Argentina. CC0

Rosemary Hostel in Florianopolis, Brazil, offers a unique and empowering experience for travelers. Located just a minute’s walk from Trilha Da Galheta and a short distance from Praia da Barra da Lagoa, this hostel provides an ideal setting for reconnecting with nature. With eight rooms featuring climate control, private balconies and mini fridges, guests can enjoy a comfortable and convenient stay. The hostel is well-connected to local attractions, including the Open Sea Turtle Museum and Barra da Lagoa Natural Pools. Guests can savor South American cuisine at the nearby Restaurante Maria & Maria or explore the vibrant Praia Barra da Lagoa district. Rosemary Hostel is designed to challenge both body and mind, offering exceptional accommodation, healthy meals and inspiring activities. Whether you’re looking to relax or embark on an adventure, Rosemary Hostel promises a memorable stay with its international family, the Dream Team. The Rosemary Hostel’s nightly rates begin at $33, and there are several different types of accommodation. 

6. ITH Beach Bungalow Surf Hostel - San Diego, CA, USA

Surfing in San Diego, California. Bengt Nyman. CC BY 2.0 

ITH Beach Bungalow Surf Hostel in San Diego offers an unparalleled experience right on the boardwalk overlooking the ocean in Pacific Beach. Known for its cozy beds, beachfront facilities, and friendly hosts passionate about showcasing local culture, this hostel invites guests to bring their beach clothes and flip-flops and immerse themselves in the surf lifestyle. The hostel emphasizes sustainable lodging, cultural contact and providing a unique hosted experience. Guests can enjoy oceanfront accommodations just 1.9 miles from Belmont Amusement Park, with amenities including BBQ facilities, a garden and a shared lounge. A daily free continental breakfast is provided, featuring bread, fruit, cereal, oatmeal and coffee. The hostel also offers a 24-hour front desk, indoor lounge with workstations and table tennis. With several room options, including female-only, coed dorms, and private rooms, all with ensuite bathrooms, ITH Beach Bungalow Surf Hostel ensures a comfortable stay. The large private outdoor deck is perfect for socializing, checking out the waves and soaking up the sunshine. Hosted social events, surfboard, wetsuit and bike rentals, as well as partnerships with top-rated wellness and yoga studios, make this hostel a legendary spot for travelers since the 1980s. Whether you’re surfing, relaxing or exploring, ITH Beach Bungalow Surf Hostel promises a social, friendly, and fun atmosphere with rates starting at $49 a night

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Julz Vargas

Julz is a student at Wellesley College studying Anthropology and Spanish. She grew up in Los Angeles, CA, and has studied all around the world in places such as Costa Rica, Greece, Iceland, and Spain. She is passionate about employing writing as a tool to explore human connection and diversity. Julz aspires to foster cross-cultural connections through community-based research, amplifying inclusive and diverse media about global cultures, foods, and people, to encourage individuals to engage more wholly with the world.