Clean Cookware Used to Improve Women’s Health and Combat Climate Change

Millions of women in developing countries lack access to clean cookware. International organizations are working to change that. 

Women in India testing a solar cooker. United Nations Development Program. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Although the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action in 1995 made groundbreaking strides toward gender equality, one key issue was never addressed: providing households with clean cookstoves. At least 3 billion people across the developing world rely on open fires to cook their food, a task mainly entrusted to women. Cooking on open fires can hold severe environmental and health implications for women and their families. 

Modern cookstoves have reduced black carbon emissions by 30-60%

According to the Clean Cooking Alliance, cooking over open fires is the second-largest contributor to global warming aside from carbon dioxide emissions. The burning process releases black carbon, or soot, which lowers the reflective quality of glaciers and sea ice, causing them to melt. Additionally, the demand for wood as fuel results in unsustainable harvesting and deforestation. Studies indicate that at least 30% of the wood used in the developing world is unsustainably harvested, negatively affecting the ecosystem’s health, biodiversity and erosion. The absence of trees prevents carbon dioxide from being absorbed from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, further compounding the effects of global warming. 

Cooking on an open fire also exposes women and children to toxic levels of household air pollution, sometimes over 35 times the amount deemed safe by the World Health Organization. Exposure to air pollution can have detrimental effects on one’s health, causing increased risks of childhood pneumonia, lung cancer, strokes and atherosclerosis. In some cases, exposure to high levels of air pollution has led to complications during birth. Health conditions related to smoke inhalation kill over 4 million people each year. 

Access to safe cookware in the developing world remains limited, especially in areas torn apart by humanitarian crises. Women often put themselves in dangerous and even life-threatening situations while searching for cooking fuel. Women collecting firewood near refugee camps and conflict zones face increased risks of gender-based violence. Additionally, children accompanying their mothers to find firewood cannot attend school and miss out on available educational opportunities. The time spent gathering firewood further prevents women from seeking valuable opportunities to generate income for their families and children. 

Empowering Women Through the Clean Cooking Alliance 

Women collecting firewood in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Oxfam International. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Founded in 2010, the Clean Cooking Alliance is an U.N.-backed organization focused on gender equality through cooking. The alliance works with a global team to ensure that 3 billion people gain access to clean cookstoves. Its focus is on increasing consumer demand and supporting local businesses while developing a clean cooking industry in seven countries: Bangladesh, China, Ghana, India, Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda. Modern cookstoves have reduced black carbon emissions by 30-60% and help to combat climate change. Additionally, having access to cooking equipment can save women up to 300 hours and $200 per year, giving them more free time to spend with their families or economic pursuits. As the Clean Cooking Alliance expands its reach, hopes are high that women and their families will be empowered across the developing world. 

To Get Involved: 

Check out the Global Cooking Alliance’s initiatives on its website or head to its fundraising page. 

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Megan Gürer

Megan is a Turkish-American student at Wellesley College in Massachusetts studying Biological Sciences. Passionate about environmental issues and learning about other cultures, she dreams of exploring the globe. In her free time, she enjoys cooking, singing, and composing music.

Unraveling the Mysteries of Rapa Nui (Easter Island)

Uncover Rapa Nui's mysteries, sustainable allure, and colossal moai on Easter Island.

Some of Rapa Nui’s stone statues (moai) watch as the sun sets behind the island. Antonio Sánchez. Unsplash.

Rapa Nui is a remote Polynesian island located 2,200 miles off the coast of Chile that spans only 63 square miles. The island is also known as Easter Island, a name that comes from Dutch explorers who arrived there on Easter Sunday in 1722. Rapa Nui gets its distinct triangular shape from the lava beds of three extinct volcanoes and is home to just a few thousand permanent residents. Despite this small population, the island has managed to land itself on many travelers’ must-see destination lists. The island is home to hundreds of imperious humanoid statues whose mysterious past have captured the attention of more than 100,000 visitors a year.

Travel Highlights

Like many other island destinations, Rapa Nui has beaches to enjoy in addition to a broad range of places to spend the night. Given the island’s many environmental concerns such as rock erosion and rising sea levels, there has been considerable focus on working toward a sustainable tourist industry. As such, Rapa Nui has several ecolodges that are popular with travelers. There is an abundance of fresh seafood, places to snorkel and opportunities to hike (Rapa Nui is a UNESCO-designated national park, making up 42% of the island). While walking around, visitors may be able to spot some of the wild horses that roam freely across the island; there are remarkably few indigenous plants, however, with only 31 wild flowering plants. The island’s three extinct volcanoes (Rano Kau, Poike, and Terevaka) also offer a chance for a unique exploration experience. 

The biggest draw of Rapa Nui is its moai. Most understand these statues as being representations of the ancestors of the Polynesian islanders who discovered the island over 1,000 years ago. Some moai have pukao, which are red ornaments that rest on some statues’ heads, and some moai sit on platforms. An ahu, where a number of these platforms can be found, was the traditional center for ceremonies on Rapa Nui. For visitors, the two most popular locations to see moai are at the Rano Raraku quarry and at the Ahu Tongariki. Although the average height of moai is 13 feet, these impressive sculptures can get as large as 80 tons and 33 feet tall. Archaeologists have determined that moai were originally made of basalt, trachyte and red scoria, but eventually moved to volcanic rock. The method of transportation for these especially large moai has sparked numerous theories and debates, with no plausible way for the statues to be moved from their place of creation to their final resting places with the resources available at the time. 

A close-up photo of a giant moai set against the Rapa Nui hillside. Thomas Griggs. Unsplash.

The Mysteries of the Island

Nearly every part of Rapa Nui’s early history has been met with some dispute; even the date of the Polynesians’ arrival has major discrepancies. One archaeological dig determined that humans first made contact with the island around 1200 A.D. This date is contested, however, with others believing that Polynesians found the island as much as 400 years earlier. The inconsistencies in archaeological data and lack of concrete evidence has led to numerous excavations being run and an abundance of people hypothesizing about the island, especially in regards to the Rapa Nui people’s process of moving the moai and how the population declined so quickly. Most of the speculation is about the time before the Dutch first arrived on the island in 1722. While there are nuances to each historian’s hypothesis, there are a few major trends. There are those who believe that the Indigenous Rapa Nui were victims of circumstance and those who believe they were inadvertently the main cause of their own suffering. While the exact truth of the early Rapa Nui history remains unknown, here are some common beliefs: 

For those who believe the Rapa Nui people were primarily victims of misfortune, there are mentions of a relatively sizable amount of wood being cut down, mostly to provide for the people and to transport the moai. Once the statues were in place, evidence suggests that additional changes were made in order to ensure they stayed upright. The complete destruction of large trees and foliage, however, can be mostly credited to invasive rats that feasted on the palm trees which once populated the island. As a dwindling Indigenous population continued to live on Rapa Nui, they were eventually confronted by a series of hostile visitors, all of whom contributed to their population becoming decimated. In 1722, the European explorers, beginning with a daylong visit from the Dutch, brought disease and strife to the Rapa Nui people. The continued arrival of European traders, explorers and other foreigners over the following decades contributed to the decline of the Rapa Nui people. 

Others adhere more to a story of ecocide. In order to move the moai, the Rapa Nui cut an excessive amount of trees down. Given that there is a considerable amount of charcoal in the island’s soil, some archaeologists have considered the possibility that the Rapa Nui people set fire to grass once they ran out of wood, another potential contributor to ecocide. Without the trees to anchor the soil, the fertile ground got washed away, ultimately leading to a shortage of crops and eventual starvation. Some have speculated about cannibalism, but this theory is less popular. In terms of outside contact, the Rapa Nui people may have had a war with another Polynesian group in 1680 which would have contributed to a population decline as well. Foreign arrivals then brought an additional, crippling blow of disease and violence.

Rapa Nui, from 1722-Present

Once Rapa Nui became known to foreigners, it suffered a similar fate to many other islands in Polynesia. At times, the Europeans destroyed property and forced many natives off of Rapa Nui. There were other hostile visitors as well. Peruvian slave traders came to the island during the 19th century and took many Rapa Nui people away as slaves. Despite the native Rapa Nui population having about 3,000 people in 1860, by 1877 so many people had been taken or killed that their numbers dwindled to just 111 individuals. 

Slavers and traders were not the only ones to come to Rapa Nui, and this heightened attention on the island eventually resulted in its current legal connection to Chile. Numerous missionaries came to the island as early as 1864, resulting in a shift toward Christianity for those who remained on Rapa Nui. This change made the island more welcoming in the eyes of many people from the mainland and prompted more interest from outsiders. The island’s annexation to Chile occurred in 1888, but the island was mostly left alone until 1903 when it was leased as a sheep farm for 50 years. During that time, the Chilean government applied an increasing amount of pressure on the Indigenous population such as confining them to one part of the island, Hanga Roa, and considering them the property of the state. By 1965 a governor was appointed to the island by the Chilean government, thus allowing the Rapa Nui people to become Chilean citizens. 

In 2010, Rapa Nui’s Indigenous clans began a major push back against the Chilean government, citing many injustices from the past decades including poverty, forced ghettos and land ownership discrepancies. This resulted in extensive discussion, violence and standoffs between the Chilean government and Rapa Nui’s Indigenous clans. In August of 2010, several Rapa Nui natives occupied a resort on the island, saying that their land had been taken unwittingly from them and was becoming developed by the Chilean government. Chilean police then forcibly evicted them from the premises, an action which received backlash from the Indigenous community. While the relationship between the two groups has since de-escalated, the situation is not truly resolved.

Seeing the Mystery for Yourself

Visiting Rapa Nui can be done by booking a 5 ½-hour flight out of Santiago, Chile. About half of the island’s current population considers themselves to be native Rapa Nui, and although some of the original Polynesian language is still present, residents speak Spanish predominantly. Rapa Nui is an island steeped in mystery and isolation, making it an intriguing and far-off destination for travelers looking to learn about Polynesian culture, explore volcanoes, and above all, meet the 887 moai that are scattered across the island. 

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Phoebe Jacoby

Phoebe is a Media Studies major and Studio Art minor at Vassar College who believes in the importance of sharing stories with others. Phoebe likes to spend her free time reading, drawing, and writing letters. She hopes to continue developing her skills as a writer and create work that will have a positive outward effect.

The Ethics of Kelp Farming in Alaska

From food, medicine, climate mitigation and preserving Indigenous traditions, kelp is the shape shifting superhero a polluted world needs.

Kelp with sardines. National Ocean Service. CC By 2.0.

Ethereal and elusive, an unconventional forest grows in the ocean—not full of trees, but of kelp. These captivating, yet occasionally uninviting, greenish tendrils are classified as a type of brown algae that grow as coastal seaweeds; they are typically found in colder waters. In a way, the ethereal kelp borders on the mystical and magical. Kelp is a shapeshifter; a veritable phenomenon that can morph into a variety of forms. Kelp can be used as biofuel, an eco-friendly alternative to fossil fuels derived from renewable biological materials. This multi-talented algae can also be used to make utensils, soap and clothing as well as food—all manner of products people use in their daily lives. 

Beyond biofuel, food and everyday household items, the production and usage of kelp is a key debate amongst climate scientists and environmentalists alike. Farming kelp could be a solution in mitigating negative effects of climate change; it could also bolster coastal locations’ economies and positively affect the livelihoods of communities living in and around these shores. But, on the other hand, farming kelp is also fraught with bureaucratic convolutions and, in the long run, could potentially backfire and end up re-polluting oceans. In short, the implications of kelp farming are complex; they are enigmatic and double-edged, much like the kelp itself.

Alaskan Company Barnacle Foods’ Kelp Products. Josephine S. CC By 2.0.

The Eyak People of Alaska—and particularly one Dune Lankard—understand kelp farming. Lankard is the co-founder of The Eyak Preservation Council as well as the President and Founder of Native Conservancy, both of which are groups that support Alaska Native peoples’ efforts in preserving and conserving land and biodiversity on the Alaskan Coastline. People in Alaska and beyond have begun to farm kelp because of commercial, food security and climate change mitigation possibilities. And, because of its optimal climatic conditions, Alaska has become a hotspot for kelp farming.

But why is kelp—this mysterious, gangly sept of seaweed—so valuable and beneficial for the environment? For humans consuming kelp, the benefits lie within its nutritional content: kelp contains calcium, magnesium, iron, vitamin C and potassium. But, perhaps more importantly, people like Dune Lankard and fellow Alaskan kelp farmers are more concerned with kelp’s ability to mitigate climate change. Kelp’s primary ability to mitigate climate change comes from its ability to sequester carbon dioxide. You may have heard of carbon dioxide because it is a greenhouse gas. But, what you might not know, is that carbon dioxide from the atmosphere can also enter the ocean, resulting in a mechanism called ocean acidification.

pH reference scale — Ocean Acidification lowers pH. Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung. CC by 2.0.

As more carbon dioxide enters the ocean and gets absorbed, the pH of the ocean itself decreases, meaning the ocean becomes more acidic. But, this is where Kelp the superhero rushes in and saves the marine phyla. Kelp require carbon to grow because of photosynthesis—they absorb sunlight as well as carbon dioxide to produce the sugar and oxygen they need to live—and, through their uptake of carbon, they leave oceans less acidic and marine organisms more happy. Additionally, when kelp float out to sea and die, sinking deep beneath the surface of the water, their carbon sinks into the depths along with them. 
Perhaps it makes sense that kelp, with its bewitching appearance, could be responsible for such intricate—almost magical—climate processes. While there are over 500 species of seaweed in Alaska, the three most-commonly grown species are bull kelp, sugar kelp and ribbon kelp. Bull kelp is strong, almost proud-looking—its thick stalk beholds a sense of authority in the water. Sugar kelp, on the other hand, is more delicately enchanting—its slightly-curled, yellow blades are like rays of sunlight spattering the sea. Ribbon kelp, with its thick spine and greenish appearance, are more reminiscent of a looming forest, or the shifting of willows in the wind.

Bull kelp bulb. James St. John. CC By 2.0.

These kelp, however, represent more than just their life cycle, climate mitigation abilities and appearance. Historically, the Eyak people—located on the Copper River Delta near Cordova, Alaska—have long used kelp for food, medicine and even tools. But, through colonialism and imperialism, some of these traditions were disrupted over decades. Today, however, the Eyak and other Indigenous peoples’ kelp farming has allowed them to reclaim these traditions. Additionally, there are immense economic benefits for any employees involved in kelp farming. The fall-to-spring growth cycle of kelp, as well as the need for regular visitation and observation of kelp farms, offer both seasonal and year-round employment opportunities. The increasing amount of kelp farms subsequently increases the number of job opportunities in Alaska, bolstering the state’s economy. Although mariculture in Alaska is currently a $1.5 million dollar industry, newly awarded $45 million in grants could potentially grow it to more than $1.85 billion in 10 years. 

Kelp farming and consumption, however, is not all sunshine and rainbows. One of the most difficult aspects of kelp farming is getting started in the first place—a kelp farm requires a permit. Most states require multi-step permit application through boards of aquaculture as well as departments of fish, wildlife and game. Luckily, on average Alaska has a lower permit processing time than most states. Beyond the bureaucratic complexities of even getting started, there are also questions being raised by environmental and climate scientists about the future of kelp farming. Although—as is outlined above—kelp farming is believed to help ocean acidification through carbon sequestration, some scientists are questioning the ability for kelp to continue to sequester carbon as ocean temperatures warm as a result of climate change.
While people should be mindful of the ambiguous future of kelp farming, for now it is safe to say that the more immediate outcomes of farming are helping kelp maintain a positive reputation. Kelp—delicate and mysteriously distant—is, in actuality, an aid toward a variety of more tangible, positive outcomes. Kelp is food. Kelp is medicine. Kelp can even represent community and prosperity. Of course, kelp can also be a huge factor in sequestering carbon in a post-industrial society. But, for many people, these scientific processes can feel overwhelming or unimportant simply because they seem intangible. This is why the effects of kelp that people can really see and feel—the sense of community, the positive economic impacts and the reclamation of tradition—are something to celebrate. Despite its unconventionality and elusivity, kelp can be a superhero.

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Carina Cole

Carina Cole is a Media Studies student with a Correlate in Creative Writing at Vassar College. She is an avid journalist and occasional flash fiction writer. Her passion for writing overlaps with environmentalism, feminism, social justice, and a desire to travel beyond the United States. When she’s not writing, you can find her meticulously curating playlists or picking up a paintbrush.

The Atacama Desert’s Fashion Graveyard

Once a vast, uninterrupted plateau, Chile’s Atacama Desert is now a technicolor testament to overconsumption.

The Atacama Fashion Graveyard. Antonio Cosio. CC BY-NC.

A cursor hovering over the checkout of an Amazon cart; an unassuming paper bag carrying the new, trendiest cut of jeans from Forever 21; a Gmail notification that indicates a menagerie of Shein clothing has been shipped. These testaments to overconsumption in daily life may produce a quick, subtle pang of guilt. But, ultimately, this engagement with the world of fast fashion tends to be “out of sight, out of mind.” After all, once the clothing is donated or discarded most people assume it will end up in a landfill, neatly tucked away, never to be seen again. With no visual proof of the waste guilt subsides, and the cycle of overconsumption repeats. 

The cyclical and rampant nature of overconsumption, however, has real, tangible implications — implications that can be seen and felt by citizens of Iquique, a Northern Chilean city in the Atacama Desert. An average of 39,000 tons of fast fashion waste are dumped in Iquique per year, in addition to the approximately 60,000 tons of clothing imported into Chile annually. Roughly 40,000 square miles, the Atacama desert was once a pristine yet arid plateau; a prime sight for stargazing under a clear, open sky. The desert landscape, covered in salt flats, valleys and rocky topography, averages about 40,000 visitors per year but has since been contaminated. 

The clothing pile has grown to such an extent that it can be seen from space using satellite technology. But, before the magnitude of clothing became noticeable from an extraterrestrial viewpoint, people residing in Alto Hospicio, a municipality next to Iquique, watched as the unbridled clothing dumping grew out of hand. Clothes manufactured in China and Bangladesh that fail to sell in U.S. stores are brought in through the port of Iquique and subsequently dumped into the Atacama. The dumping site raised concerns among citizens of Alto Hospicio as early as 2012, but their unease was ignored.

The Atacama Desert. NASA. CC0.

Disheartened, the people of Alto Hospicio claimed to have experienced negligence by local and national government officials firsthand. For years, the waste grew despite continual pleas for action. Although in 2021 the former Minister for the Environment of Chile, Javier Naranjo Solano, expressed his worries about the vast quantities of textiles being imported into Chile and proposed remediation, some Chilean environmental engineers and scientists feared that the the laws he proposed, entangled with bureaucratic processes,  would be far too slow-moving considering the urgent, rapid growth of the clothing pile. Other citizens, however, have faith that Chile’s newly appointed Minister for the Environment, Maisa Rojas, will be able to translate eco-anxiety into concrete action.

Even under new leadership, however, the already massive pile of clothing is a nearly indestructible hazard. Much of the poor-quality fast fashion clothing dumped in Atacama is polyester, a material made out of the non-renewable resource petroleum. The open-air clothing pile secretes pollutants into the air; they seep into the ground. Thus, petroleum and other harmful materials can contaminate any remaining groundwater in aquifers under the desert. As potent as plastic and as enduring as steel, the clothing dumped in Atacama will take 200 years to biograde.

The Atacama Desert is often considered the driest climate on the planet, with annual rainfall averaging at only .03 inches. Atacama’s arid climate dangerously aids the spread of intentionally ignited fires. In order to curtail the amount of clothing discarded, fires are illegally and mysteriously started. These fires only serve as a further pollutant on top of the fabric already decomposing in the hot, arid environment. 

Although many merchants reside in Iquique,  one of South America’s largest duty free ports, many in the municipality of Alto Hospicio live in poverty — 25% of residents in Alto Hospicio specifically live in extreme poverty and, with many having poor access to quality housing. Although many residents travel to the Atacama fashion graveyard to salvage and sell discarded clothing, their proximity to the dump site has sinister implications: the negligence of the Atacama fashion desert and subsequent pollution acutely harms low-income communities in Northern Chile. Fast fashion waste, both burnt and decomposing, creates fumes that are linked to respiratory diseases, chronic illnesses, reproductive issues and even types of cancer.

The Port of Iquique. Diego Delso. CC-BY-SA 4.0.

Although there are efforts to repurpose the dumped clothing, with companies such as Ecofibra Chile taking the fabric and transforming it into thermal insulation panels, only one method of curtailing fast-fashion waste can truly have an impact: curbing our own overconsumption. Instead of purchasing that cost-effective Amazon fashion find, or the trendy new jeans from Forever 21, look into your own closet. Rediscover a dress that has been tucked away in the depths of your dresser. Organize a clothes swap with friends. Borrow your Aunt’s blouse or your Grandfather’s wool sweater. Rather than falling victim to trend cycles, explore what has been cherished, saved and passed down.

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Carina Cole

Carina Cole is a Media Studies student with a Correlate in Creative Writing at Vassar College. She is an avid journalist and occasional flash fiction writer. Her passion for writing overlaps with environmentalism, feminism, social justice, and a desire to travel beyond the United States. When she’s not writing, you can find her meticulously curating playlists or picking up a paintbrush. 

4 Stunning Coral Reefs: Their Threats and Beauty

Coral reef systems are home to some of the largest concentrations of biodiversity in the world, but climate change is putting them at risk. 

Fish swimming through coral reefs in Panama. Thinkpanama. CC BY-NC 2.0

Home to countless fish and vibrant aquaflora, these awe-inspiring reefs are feeling the impacts of climate change. 

To dive into the world of coral reefs is to experience an underwater garden defined by vibrant colors, rare plant life, and unparalleled biodiversity. Not only are coral reefs visually stunning and awe-inspiring, but they serve an important role in food systems and economic growth, as approximately one billion people rely on coral reefs across their world for food and income.

However, the effects of climate change are damaging the health and vitality of reef systems. One major effect of rising water temperatures on coral reefs is coral bleaching. Coral bleaching occurs as an adaptive response to warming waters, during which corals shed their symbiotic algae, or zooxanthellae, in the hopes of replacing it with algae that is more heat tolerant, a process that leads the corals to take on a white color and appear ‘bleached.’ This doesn’t immediately kill the coral, but the environmental keystone is left vulnerable and its death rate increases. With so many species relying on reefs as a source of nutrients and shelter, bleaching not only affects the health of the coral itself but the entire network of life that the reefs support.

The impacts of coral bleaching are increasing steadily alongside rising temperatures, with an ocean heat wave causing roughly 75% of the world’s reefs to experience bleaching between 2014 and 2017.  

As reefs around the world feel the effects of climate change, now more than ever is it crucial to understand and appreciate the beauty and significance of coral reef systems around the world, as well as the efforts being made to protect them.

Great Barrier Reef, Australia

The Agincourt Reef in the Great Barrier Reef. Robert Linsdell. CC BY 2.0

Perhaps the most famous of all coral reefs, the Great Barrier Reef is also the largest coral reef system in the world, stretching some 348,000 square kilometers along the Australian coast. Home to distinct ecology and biodiversity, the reef holds roughly 400 distinct types of coral, 1,500 different species of fish, and around 240 different species of birds. The Great Barrier Reef is one of the most popular tourism destinations in Australia, with some 2 million people visiting the Marine Park each year.

Around  344,400 square kilometers or about 99% of the reef is included as part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. As part of The Reef 2050 Long-Term Sustainability Plan, the Australian government invested  $260 million into the park in an effort to aid reef protection and conservation efforts. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has also taken strides to acknowledge Indigenous communities’ relationships to the reef and reserves specific marine tourism permits that offer opportunities for Indigenous people to build tourism businesses and collaborate with other operators to share their cultural connection with the reefs.

In 1981, the Great Barrier Reef became a World Heritage Site, an area that is granted legal protection by the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), making it the most biodiverse ecological area to be included in the category. 

Despite such protections, the Great Barrier Reef is vulnerable to harmful bleaching practices, with nearly 400,000 hectares disappearing due to bleaching between 2015 and 2016 alone. As outlined in The Reef 2050 Plan, the Australian Government aims to reduce the nutrients loads entering the ocean via rivers by 80% by 2025. 

The Great Barrier Reef is one of the most popular diving destinations, and offers travelers the experience to glimpse a range of marine life, from whitetip sharks to yellow snappers. The town of Cairns is a popular entry point and has a bustling hostel season in peak diving season during which day boats take divers out to nearby reefs. If travelers want to escape the crowds they can venture farther north to Port Douglas and utilize the town's diving resort options.  Because the quality of reefs increases as one moves further from the mainland, divers frequently utilize liveaboard trips, which allow them to spend multiple days and nights living on a boat that transports them to different diving sites. While diving is possible year-round, Australia’s summer months between December and February bring in warmer and clearer water to talk in the stunning vibrancy of the corals. However, during the winter months from March to November (the Southern Hemisphere’s de facto summer), divers are more likely to come across large marine mammals. The Great Barrier Reef is suitable for divers at all levels, though degrees of difficulty vary depending on the site, with spots such as the Osprey and Ribbon Reef being more suitable for advanced divers.

Raja Ampat, Indonesia

Colorful corals and fish at the Raja Ampat. Carlos Fernandez-Cid. CC BY 2.0

As part of The Coral Triangle, an oceanic ecological area in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, the Raja Ampat reef stretches nearly 4 million square miles. The rich nutrients and biodiversity of this area makes it home to 1,600 different fish species and 75% of the world’s coral species. The diversity in the area in part stems from the area's proximity to the “Ring of Fire”, a range of underwater volcanoes that extends for some 25,000 miles along the Pacific Ocean. Stretching along the boundaries of several tectonic plates, the area is rich in volcanic activity, and holds 75% of the Earth’s volcanoes, of which it has more than 450. 

Parts of the Raja Ampat are included in the network of Marine Protected Areas that was established by local communities and governments along with Conservation International, The Nature Conservancy, and Worldwide Fund For Nature, to provide conservation and zone regulations to a total of 2,000,109 hectares.   

The Raja Ampat has proven widely resilient to the effect of climate change and warming waters. The reef’s unique location has rendered it adaptable to a variety of different climates, with low tide reefs heated by the sun and deep ocean reefs that experience oceanographic upwellings which bring in cold, nutrient rich water. Temperatures across The Raja Ampart can range between 66 degrees to 96 degrees Fahrenheit. Because coral bleaching is a stress response to climate change, The Raja Ampat reefs resilience to intense warm water temperatures also means that the reef system has exhibited few signs of bleaching. 

Due to its remote locale, the Raja Ampat is less popular with divers than some of the other major reef systems. But those who choose to embark on the journey will not be disappointed. Liveaboarding is the most popular way to see the reefs, with around 40 liveaboards in the area, and trips are on offer from October to May.  Dive resorts are also popular for visitors who want a land-based option.  Some of the most popular diving spots include Sardine's Reef, Mike's Point and Blue Magic, located at the Dampier Strait. Along with its coral, the Raja Ampat contains a plethora of rich marine life including reef sharks, barracudas, and octopuses. With such diversity, it's no wonder the Raja Ampat reef holds the record for the largest number of different species recorded in a single dive. 

Red Sea Coral Reefs, Indian Ocean

Divers in the Red Sea near Big Brother Island. Derek Keats. CC BY 2.0

The Red Sea Coral Reefs are defined by their distinct location and geological history. The reef platforms are over 5,000 years old and extend for some 1,240 miles (2,000 km). Due to its unique location and regional climate, the Red Sea reefs are tolerant to extreme climates, including high temperatures, salinity, and frequent turbidity from seasonal dust storms. A lack of river discharge, combined with low rainfall in the region helps make the water exceptionally clear and free of heavy sediments. This unique geology makes the Red Sea Reefs an ideal home for rare species, with roughly 10% of its 1,200 recorded fish species being endemic, meaning that they are found nowhere else. 

The Red Sea Coral reefs are unique in their resistance to climate change and ocean bleaching. This resistance is in part due to the fact that many of the reefs in the Red Sea actually migrated to their current location from the south, an area with significantly higher temperatures. Relying on their historical comfort with extreme heat, today, reefs in the Red Sea seem to be actively thriving as water temperatures rise, with algae doubling the amount of oxygen they produce. In order to learn more about the Red Sea reefs’ ability to thrive in such extreme weathers, scientists have built a Red Sea Stimulator to try and mimic the conditions of the area and understand how the specific environment in the Red Sea can be used to help protect other reef systems that are not as resistance to climate change. 

While the Red Sea coral reefs have proven resilient to climate change, they face the threat of degradation from nearby urban expansion that can create runoff and debris harmful to the water quality. In 1994, the governments of Israel and Jordan collaborated to found the Red Sea Marine Peace Park, in the Gulf of Aqaba. The park offers a groundbreaking example of a cross-national collaboration to preserve and protect coral reefs.  

Diving the Red Sea allows an opportunity not just to see the coral, but also large marine mammals such as sharks and dolphins, unique underwater environments including labyrinths and lagoons, and remnants of past shipwrecks, including the SS Thistlegorm, a British cargo steamship that sunk in 1941. Most dive resorts can be found in the coastal towns of Sharm el Sheikh and Dahab. The Red Sea’s high evaporation rates and infrequent rainfall and isolated location make it a nearly year-round diving destination. Diving in the northern region allows opportunities to explore the lagoons of El Gouna and shipwrecks found in the Straits of Gubal. In the South, the Fury Shoals is perfect for gentle drift dives, and the Zabargad and Rocky Islands house shallow reefs and black coral trees. The St. John’s Reef on the border of Sudan is one of the more isolated regions of the Red Sea. Divers can explore pristine caves and tunnels, however choppy winds between October and April can cause harsh conditions. 

Rainbow Reef, Fiji

Fish swimming in Fiji’s Rainbow reef. David Burdick. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Located in the Somosomo Strait, a passageway that separates the Taveuni and Vanua Levu islands in Fiji, the Rainbow Reef offers a striking spectrum of colors that live up to its name. The Rainbow Reef is often called the soft coral capital of the world, and one of its most popular reefs is the Great White Wall, an underwater slope covered in a tapestry of soft white corals and home to countless colorful anthias as well as reef sharks and manta rays. 

Fiji’s reefs have also been impacted by rising temperatures and bleaching. In 2017, a major bleaching event killed nearly half of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef and affected almost all of the reef’s protected by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. As a reaction to the devastating bleaching, Fijian Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama called for greater protection of reefs as they face the triple manmade threats of ocean acidification, rising temperatures, and harmful fishing practices. In January 2018, the Fijian government banned the sale of live coral, in an effort to provide further protection of the coral systems and recognize the important role these reefs play for local Fijians who rely on them for food and economic stability.

The Rainbow Reef is a popular diving spot, with the Great White Wall being included as one of the top 10 diving destinations by U.S. Divers Magazine  and there are a few different diving resorts in the area. Most diving is done through resorts as there is only one liveaboard in Fiji.  One of the most popular diving spots is Annie's Bommies, located between the Taveuni and Vanua Levu islands. The ‘bommies’ refer to the three submerged coral reefs that provide the perfect passageways for divers to weave between and catch a glimpse of the schools of fish, eels, leopard sharks and the stunning hues of the opal bubble coral.  The best visibility for diving along the Somosomo Strait occurs from April to October, with the winter season from July to September ushering in choppier water conditions.

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Jessica Blatt

Jessica graduated from Barnard College with a degree in English. Along with journalism, she is passionate about creative writing and storytelling that inspires readers to engage with the world around them. She hopes to share her love for travel and learning about new cultures through her work.

The Ultimate Guide to Travel Apps

From planning your trip to meeting other travelers, these travel apps will help you make the most of your journeys.

Two people looking at a phone; travel apps are in the foreground. Raeann Mason

Whether you're backpacking through Europe, volunteering in a developing country, or exploring your backyard, these travel apps will provide you with the tools you need to navigate unfamiliar destinations, find affordable accommodation and activities, and stay in touch with loved ones back home so you can have a safe, fun, and unforgettable experience. Let’s get into it!

Planning and Big Picture Apps

A map, backpack, camera, and notebook to get ready for a trip. Annie Spratt. 

1. Portico.Travel

   Portico.Travel offers personalized travel recommendations and itineraries for travelers based on their interests. The app's machine learning and AI technology provide tailored advice for accommodations, activities, and dining options. Its chat-based interface and virtual travel assistant make travel planning accessible and efficient.

2. Packpoint

   Packpoint is a packing list app that helps you pack for your trip based on the length of your stay, the weather at your destination, and the activities you plan. It's a helpful tool that ensures you remember everything necessary and can help you pack efficiently and avoid overcramming.

3. Triphobo

   Triphobo is a travel planning app that helps you create customized itineraries for destinations worldwide. It offers a variety of activities, attractions, and tours, and it also provides information on transportation options and accommodation.

   Bonus: Maps.me

   Maps.me is a navigation app that offers detailed offline maps for different parts of the world. It's an excellent option for travelers who want to rely on something other than cellular data or Wi-Fi, and it also provides information on nearby points of interest and attractions.

Socializing

A meet-up at the lake. Jakob Owens.

1. Jetzy

   Jetzy is a social travel app that connects travelers with other travelers and locals. Through the app you can can contact like-minded people for authentic local recommendations or even plan to meet in person so you're never lost or alone anywhere you go.

2. Travello

   Travello is a social networking app that connects travelers from around the world based on their travel interests and plans. It offers travelers the opportunity to join groups, connect with other travelers, and share experiences and recommendations.

3. Party with a Local

   Party with a Local is a social networking app connecting travelers with locals interested in partying and nightlife. It's a great way to meet people and discover the best bars, clubs, and events in different destinations worldwide.

   Bonus: Tourlina

   Tourlina is a travel app that connects women travelers with other women travelers worldwide. It offers the chance to find travel companions, meetups, and events, providing women a safer and more comfortable travel experience.

Transportation

Two tuk-tuks. Florian Wehde. 

1. Hopper

   Hopper is a flight booking app that uses predictive algorithms to help you find the best deals on flights. It allows you to set up alerts for price drops and track the prices of different flights over time. It's an excellent tool for budget-conscious travelers who want to find the cheapest flights available.

2. Transit

   Transit is a public transportation app that provides real-time schedules, routes, and alerts for buses, trains, subways, and other modes of public transportation in different cities around the world. It also offers live navigation, step-by-step directions, and bike-share options, making it easier to get around.

3. BlaBlaCar

   BlaBlaCar is a ride-sharing app that allows you to share rides with other travelers and locals at your destination. It offers a safe and affordable way to travel by car, providing real-time ride-matching, reviews, ratings, and secure payment options.

   Bonus: Detour

   Detour is a travel app that offers immersive audio walks that guide you through different neighborhoods and landmarks worldwide. Each audio walk is narrated by a local expert, providing insider knowledge and stories about the destination.

Food

Giant gelato treat in a cone. Toa Heftiba. 

1. Beanhunter

   Beanhunter is a coffee-finding app that helps you locate the best specialty coffee shops in different destinations worldwide. It also provides user reviews and ratings to help you find the best brews and cafes.

2. TasteAtlas

   TasteAtlas is a food discovery app that allows you to search for traditional dishes, restaurants, and food producers in different destinations worldwide. It provides detailed information on local cuisine, including its history, preparation, ingredients, and user-generated reviews and ratings. TasteAtlas also offers a curated selection of food-related articles, recipes, and travel guides.

3. Traveling Spoon

   Traveling Spoon is a travel app that connects travelers with local hosts who offer cooking classes and food experiences in their homes or other venues. It offers the opportunity to learn how to cook traditional local dishes and meet new people, providing a more immersive and educational food experience.

   Bonus: HappyCow

   HappyCow is a vegan and vegetarian travel app that helps you find plant-based restaurants and food options in your destination. It offers a comprehensive directory of vegan and vegetarian-friendly restaurants, cafes, and stores worldwide.

Accommodation

Someone lounging in a hammock. TobiasTullius. 

1. Couchsurfing: 

   A social network connecting travelers with locals willing to offer free accommodation, tours, and cultural experiences. It's a great way to save money on accommodation and get to know the locals. It can also help you find like-minded travelers interested in social action and international travel.

2. Stayful: 

   Stayful is a platform that offers boutique hotel options in various cities around the world. It's an excellent option for travelers who want to stay in unique and stylish accommodations.

3. Agoda: 

   Agoda is a booking app specializing in finding hotels, resorts, and vacation rentals. It's especially helpful for finding deals on accommodations in Asia. Agoda offers excellent rates and promotions on all types of accommodations.

4. Roomer: 

   Roomer is a platform allowing travelers to buy and sell hotel reservations they can no longer use. It's a great option for travelers who need to cancel their reservation but don't want to lose money.

   Bonus: MisterB&B: 

   MisterB&B is a platform that offers LGBTQIA+-friendly accommodations, including apartments, villas, and private rooms. It's a great option for LGBTQIA+ travelers who want to feel safe and comfortable while traveling

Language

A light-up sign which reads “hola”. Jon Tyson

1. TripLingo:

   A language learning app designed specifically for travelers. It includes useful phrases, slang, and cultural tips for various countries and regions.

2. HelloTalk: 

   HelloTalk is a language exchange app that allows users to connect with native speakers to practice speaking a new language. It includes text and voice messaging, translation tools, and language correction.

3. Tandem: 

   Tandem is a language exchange app that connects users with native speakers of the language they want to learn. It's a great way to practice speaking and listening skills while traveling.

   Bonus: FluentU

   A language learning app that uses real-world videos, such as movie trailers and music videos, to teach languages. It includes courses for many languages and allows users to practice listening and comprehension skills.

Activities

A group tour on camel-back. Vaida Tamosauskaite

1. Culture Trip

   Culture Trip is a travel app that provides you with insider information on the best local experiences, from food and drinks to art and culture. It's a great tool for travelers exploring off-the-beaten-path destinations and learning about the local culture.

2. Triposo

   Triposo is a travel guide app that offers information on destinations worldwide, including local attractions, restaurants, and nightlife. It also provides personalized recommendations based on your interests and preferences, allowing you to download offline maps and guides for different destinations.

3. Culture Pass

   Culture Pass is a travel app that provides access to various cultural attractions and experiences, such as museums, art galleries, and historical landmarks. It's a great way to discover and learn about different cultures and histories and offers discounts and promotions for certain attractions.

   Bonus: Vayable 

   Vayable is a platform that offers unique travel experiences led by local guides. These experiences can include guided tours, cultural activities, and workshops. With Vayable, travelers can discover authentic and off-the-beaten-path experiences that might not be available through traditional tour companies.

Money

A pile of money from around the world. Jason Leung.

1. XE Currency

   XE Currency is a currency conversion app that helps you calculate currency conversions in real time. It offers accurate exchange rates for over 180 currencies and lets you set up alerts for currency rate changes.

2. Trail Wallet

   Trail Wallet is a budgeting app that helps you track travel expenses and stay within your budget. It allows you to enter your expenses in different categories, such as food, transportation, and accommodation; set daily spending limits; and see how much money you have left. Budget-conscious travelers who want to save money and avoid overspending will appreciate this app most.

3. GlobeConvert

   GlobeConvert is a unit conversion app that helps you convert currencies, units of measurement, and time zones. It's a helpful tool for international travelers who need to quickly convert prices, distances, and temperatures between different units of measurement.

Safety

A man sitting with an umbrella under a red Evacuation Assembly Area sign. Benjamin Sow

1. Sitata

   Sitata provides real-time safety alerts and advice for travelers, but it also includes a variety of fun features like personalized travel recommendations, interactive maps, and a travel journal. It also allows users to connect with other travelers and share tips and recommendations.

2. GeoSure

   GeoSure provides safety ratings for specific areas and neighborhoods based on factors like crime rates, political instability, and natural disasters. It also includes a feature that allows users to track their emotional well-being while traveling and receive tips for managing stress and anxiety.

3. Rebtel

   Rebtel is a calling app that offers affordable international calling rates and text messaging, even without cell service. It's a great option for travelers who want to stay in touch with friends and family back home, and it also offers a variety of features such as call recording and international number identification.

   Bonus: SitOrSquat

   SitOrSquat is a restroom-finding app that helps you locate nearby public restrooms around the world. It also provides user reviews and ratings to help you find the cleanest and most convenient bathrooms, which can be especially helpful if you need accessible toilets.

Now you have the tools to navigate unfamiliar places, learn new languages, connect with locals, save money, and have a more authentic travel experience. Bon voyage!

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Raeann Mason

Raeann is a traveler, digital storyteller, and guide writer, with a degree in Mass Communication & Media from the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism. She is passionate about a/effective journalism and cultural exchange, and is an advocate of international solidarity and people's liberation. Her work at CATALYST focuses on reshaping the culture of travel and hospitality to be more ethically sound and sustainable.

Africa’s History Before Colonialism

Africa saw the rise and fall of diverse societies, cultures, and civilizations that thrived long before colonization.

A’it benhaddou. Toa Heftiba. Unsplash

Africa as a continent is of great diversity and complexity, with a rich history that spans millennia. It has seen ancient civilizations advance agriculture, science, technology, and political systems, all of it predating the European colonial era. However, the impact of colonialism on the continent cannot be ignored. Colonialism has distorted the development and history of Africa as we know it today. From the arbitrary borders drawn by European powers to political instability in certain regions, Africa has had to navigate numerous challenges. Despite this, Africa’s story is one not of despair but of resilience and hope. Nor does it begin with these themes; it has always been a vibrant and dynamic continent.

As we explore Africa’s past, it is essential to remember that no single narrative can capture an entire continent’s complexity. Instead, we must approach each story with an open mind, ready to learn from the diverse perspectives and experiences that make Africa the remarkable place it is today.

It is a continent home to many different cultures, beliefs, traditions, kingdoms, empires, and visionaries. It is rich with mineral red soil and oceans as blue as sapphires. It is a continent where the rhythmic beats from djembe drums reverberate across the nation for all ears to hear. It is a continent with traditions ancient and beloved by many. It is a peaceful continent that many people call home. The story of pre-colonial Africa has been kept hidden, but it deserves to be uncovered for all its glory. 

Empires, tribes, notables

Let’s start with the fact that “Africa” isn’t a native name for the continent , but a name the Romans gave to the provinces they conquered from Carthage. It is unclear what indigenous Africans called their continent before this European appellation, but so vast a land mass may have defied conceptualization to the ancients. The Roman term initially applied to only a portion of what we would now call North Africa. Today, some refer to  the continent as a “garden of Eden” and the “cradle of humankind,” as it is the origin of our species, homo sapiens.

As we know, there is power to a name; it solidifies identity. Now that we know more about where the name Africa comes from, let’s explore more about its people and their cultures. 

Malian Empire (Mansa musa)

A map of the Malian Empire during its reign. Gabriel Moss. CC BY-SA 4.0

The Malian empire (13th-16th century) was an empire that spanned a multitude of present-day West African countries, in particular its present-day namesake, the Republic of Mali. During the reign of its emperors, this kingdom was widely known as a trading empire, driving the international trade in gold and salt. A notable figure who helped Mali become one of the wealthiest empires at the time was a king named Mansa Musa. He was known to be one of the richest men on earth, and during his pilgrimage to Mecca, he took tons of gold with him and shared his wealth with the people there. Under his leadership, the Malian empire excelled in education, navigation, and more.

Education

Sankore mosque, one of the largest universities in the world. upyernoz. CC by 2.0

Under Mansa Musa’s reign, his Empire built many of the most reputable philosophical schools of the age. The most well-known one is the University of Sankoré. This particular university had one of the largest libraries since the library of Alexandria – it could house 200,000 students and preserved a collection of 400,000-700,000 manuscripts. Many astronomers, mathematicians, and philosophers called this institution home. 

Additionally, the Malian empire is home to the famous educational and trading city of Timbuktu. Mansa Musa, having built and cultivated this city, opened the doors for trading across north and west Africa. As more Muslim Tuareg (northern African nomads) traders made their way to the city, spreading Islam, Timbuktu became an epicenter for Maktab’s (Muslim schools). 

Amazigh Indigenous

The Amazigh are Indigenous people from all over northern Africa. Often these people are called ‘Berber,’ which is a harmful exonym, as literally derived from the same root as ‘barbaric.’ They have been fighting for cultural recognition and acceptance since the Arab conquests in North Africa, eroding their existence. 

Traditions

The Amazigh have a deep and profound love for the earth and for their natural lands, and they believe their mountains (Aakal) protected them from Arab invasions. They even have annual festivals celebrating the land’s fertility called Bou-Irmawen. 

Another tradition they have is tattooing, which came about as an act of rebellion against Arab rulers, who banned the practice. Amazigh men tattooed Amazigh symbols and tribal affiliations onto the backs of their hands.

Lastly, Amazigh families are by tradition matriarchal. This system, coming long before colonialism and lasting many years, speaks volumes. In Amazigh families, the mother is considered the head of the family.

The Amhara people of the Abyssinian empire (Ethiopia)

Collage photo of what the Amhara people looked like. Middayexpress. CC BY-SA 3.0

One interesting thing about Ethiopia is that it was never officially colonized, only briefly occupied by Fascist Italy during WWII, meaning the nation/empire retains much of its traditions and culture. The Amhara people are among the oldest indigenous groups in the Abyssinian empire. As one of the country’s largest ethnic groups, the Amhara have given their language of Amharic to be Ethiopia’s official language. A proud and ancient people, the Amhara have many fantastic fables, stories, and myths that help define their way of life and culture.

Myths and Culture

Starting with an interesting fact, the Amhara people believe that they share ancestry with Shem,  eldest son of biblical Noah, and can even trace it all the way back to King Solomon and Queen Sheba. Ethiopia is one of the oldest epicenters of Christianity in Africa (and, indeed, the world).

While the Amhara have a strong connection to religion, they also have a tie to their spirituality. They have a myth about a being called Buda, which is believed to use evil eyes and possess humans, making them partake in malicious activities. To protect yourself against these spirits, wearing a blue glass eye is believed to ward off the evil spirits and protect you.

Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom- Eastern Uganda 

A photo of what the ancient kingdom’s capital looked like. Harry johnston. CC BY-SA 4.0

Bunyoro was a kingdom in East Africa whose kings reigned from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The kingdom was infamous for its fortified military unit and its trade of fish and salt. Its economy relied heavily on agriculture and succeeded due to a surplus of fertile soils.

Reproductive health

Not only were these people excellent in agriculture, but they were excellent midwives and performed one of the first successful c-sections. They are noted to be the origin or birthplace of the c-section, as many western researchers would come here to see how they had achieved this feat. To perform these c-sections, the midwives would use banana wine as an anesthetic, fire to sterilize their tools and for cauterization, and salves and stitches for healing. These c-sections would rarely result in complications and most were successful.

Fulbe Nomad tribe–Wodaabe in Chad

The Wodaabe men dressed in their Gerewol attire and makeup. Dan Lundberg. CC By-NC-S.A 2.0

The Fulbe people, also called the Fulani, are a widely dispersed and often nomadic ethnic group across Africa. It is under debate where they originate from, and, due to their lifestyle, they are very diverse people. The Fulbe people are known to be merchants and herders. An interesting fact about them is that they were among the first people to adopt Islam after the conquests.

Gender Roles

The Wodaabe people in Chad, an extension of the Fulani, are one of the remaining groups that have stuck to their traditional religion instead of converting to Islam. They subscribe to the belief of Animism– the idea that every living thing (including trees) has a soul. Something unique about these people is that they have an annual Gerewol festival, which showcases a male beauty pageant to find a wife. In this society, despite general patriarchy, women get to choose their partners. The festival unfolds with the Wodaabe men painted in yellow with makeup wearing elaborate jewelry and sweet perfume dancing the night away. 

Africa is a continent that so many call home, and for its true history to be unearthed authentically speaks volumes. Africa was often portrayed as backward or barbaric during the colonial era, and because of this, diverse and advanced ancient cultures were erased in the process. This is only a glimpse of what pre-colonial Africa was like, and there are so many more cultures that deserve recognition.

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Kadija Diallo

Kadija is a student at Georgia State in Atlanta, Ga. She is a creative spirit who loves traveling and seeing new places. She also enjoys using her love for writing/storytelling to make an impact on the world. One day she hopes to make new connections and share stories as she travels to every continent. 

9 Must-Read Works of Historical Protest Literature

The novels and essays that shaped our understanding of human rights.

Throughout US history, protest against injustice has driven citizens to develop a social consciousness about the realities of their country. Protest has become a tradition for an American people empowered by democracy. Protests against US systems and rules range from wide and broad dissent – usually targeting the government, people in power, unfair laws, and injustice – to narrow and timely dissent, targeting war, the cruelties of industrialization, homophobia, racism, and misogyny. 

The many models of protest, political, artistic, literary, etc., all empower groups whose voices beg to be heard and whose voices can create structural change in society and in the reader. Of these, literary protest may be the most multidimensional in that authors  can outline and explore structures of oppression, and the government and policies that uphold this structure, over hundreds of pages. Literary protest is variable, timely, and necessary; it puts the voice of the educated, intelligent, and thoughtful at the forefront of dissent. 

Here are 9 must-read pieces of US protest literature: 

1. “Resistance to Civil Government” or “On the Duty of Civil Disobedience” by Henry David Thoreau (1849)

In Thoreau’s “Resistance to Civil Government,” the transcendentalist author explains his intentional and political refusal to pay taxes with a critique of the American government. The essay highlights his opposition to the American government’s invasion and occupation of Mexico during the Mexican-American War and the continuing injustice of slavery; in these conditions, Thoreau argues, injustice reigns in the American government, so citizens may choose to disobey laws that support these injustices. This abolitionist and anti-imperialist essay argues for the American right of revolution. 

2. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave

Douglass’ Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave recounts his memories, thoughts, and experiences as a slave and, later, an escaped fugitive. This pre-Civil War autobiography accurately depicts Douglass’ experiences from his early years as a slave in Maryland to his status as de facto free man. The book is filled to the brim with abolitionist sentiment and a strong indictment of slavery. It is also Frederick Douglass’ best-selling fugitive slave narrative, having sold 5000 copies within four months of the first printing.

3. “An Indian’s Looking-Glass for the White Man”

Pequot William Apess, one of the most impactful Native American protest writers, embodies resistance in his essay, “An Indian’s Looking-Glass for the White Man.” Apess challenges the reigning notions of white superiority with his prose, the system of slavery promoted by whites, and the forceful imposition of European American culture and religion on native peoples whose civilizations are as significant as the white Americans’ own. This protest writer challenges the dominant systems by discussing such examples of white brutality against Native Americans as the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which granted white Americans permission to commit violence against the Indigenous and to remove them from their ancestral land.

Judith Sargent Murray’s many works can be found in the Selected Writings of Judith Sargent Murray. Amazon.

4. “On the Equality of the Sexes” by Judith Sargent Murray (1790)

Murray’s feminist essay, “On the Equality of the Sexes” precedes even Mary Wollstonecraft’s Vindication of the Rights of Women by a year, but unjustly is by far the lesser known of the two feminist pieces. Regardless, the pseudonymously published essay promotes the education of women using a multitude of feminist arguments. Murray discusses and refutes the stereotypes of women as gossipers and fashion-obsessed fools, highlights her hatred of the prevailing notion that women should be subservient to men and be denied education, and promotes the somewhat nationalist idea that both men and women should be educated to advance the country, a concept that would later be called Republican Motherhood.

5. The Jungle by Upton Sinclair (1

Sinclair’s novel The Jungle protests the cruelties and the corruption of 20th century US industrialization. This expose of the Chicago meatpacking industry was part of a wave of similar exposes written by muckrakers – progressive American writers who exposed the harsh realities of industrialization – in the early 20th century. Although the novel tells the story of fictional Lithuanian immigrant Jurgis Rudkus’s experience of factory life, there is much truth to the narrative because Sinclair wrote the novel after spending much time undercover in various Chicago meatpacking plants. The description of falling wages, workplace injuries, food contamination, and disease significantly impacted the image of factory jobs at this time and forced the government to implement federal food safety laws.

6. Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches

Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches compiles some of Audre Lorde’s most influential works that confront racism, sexism, homophobia, and classicism into a single book. Lorde addresses a multitude of systems of oppression: in her most famous essay “The Master’s Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master’s House,” Lorde promotes the idea that the tools built by the system of oppression will never defeat that same system of oppression. In “Man Child: A Black Lesbian’s Feminist Response,” Lorde recounts her experience of raising both a son and a daughter while critiquing the toxic masculinity that society demands of her son. Echoing themes include critiques of black men’s treatment of black women and the idea that the oppressed shouldn’t teach their oppressors about the latter’s mistakes.

American journalist Frances FitzGerald’s Fire in the Lake.

7. Fire in the Lake by Frances

FitzGerald’s Fire in the Lake, a nonfiction history of Vietnam and the Vietnam War, boasts the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction, the Bancroft Prize, and the National Book Award for Contemporary Affairs. The multi-award-winning book was crafted by FitzGerald after years of travel and research into Vietnamese culture. In the book’s pages, FitzGerald analyzes the downfalls of American interventionism in Vietnam, America’s supposed promise to develop South Vietnam, and the many adverse effects – such as the displacement of villagers – of keeping American arms in Vietnam. Overall, the book highlights the ignorance of the US government and society through the lens of a cultural intellectual at a time when the Vietnam War was still ongoing. 

8. The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbe

Perhaps Steinbeck’s most famous fiction masterpiece, The Grapes of Wrath, narrates the story of migrant farm workers suffering from the Great Depression. In the narrative, the Joad family of farmers loses their livelihood in the Oklahoma Dust Bowl and must trek to find work elsewhere. The Nobel Prize-winning novel demonstrates the ways in which farm workers were exploited by organized businesses in the 1930s and generates sympathy for the plight of these individuals as they fight through economic hardship. In fact, Steinbeck, to gain a clearer picture of these hardships, visited migrant camps teeming with residents and saw firsthand the harsh living conditions of families similar to the fictional Joads.

9. The Thing Around Your Neck by Chi

This collection of short stories is revolutionary in its focus on mental health, anxiety, and grief, especially as they pertain to immigrant culture. Grief appears in the short story “American Embassy” when a woman tries to apply for asylum but cannot bear to describe her son’s murder for the sake of a visa. Anxiety and loneliness appear in the title story “The Thing Around Your Neck” as the narrator Akunna’s sexual assault makes her feel lonelier than ever after her move to America. In all of Adichie’s stories, the Nigerian author writes eloquently about her own intercultural journey through her fictional characters and narratives.

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Su Ertekin-Taner

Su is a first year student at Columbia University majoring in creative writing. Her love for the power of words and her connection to her Turkish roots spills into her satire, flash fiction, and journalistic pieces among other genres. Su hopes to continue writing fearless journalism, untold stories, and prose inspired by her surroundings.

9 Hottest Cuisines from Around the World

Discover the 9 spiciest cuisines from around the world, from Jamaican jerk chicken to Brazilian bean cake

Homemade Hotpot. Jonathan Lin. CC BY 2.0.

Flavorful and diverse, food can bring a range of sensory pleasure through the tastes of sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and savory. But, spicy, a sensation rather than a flavor, is a unique combination of scorching pain and alluring charm. While it can leave a strong impression on diners, it can also burn the tongue and leave one reaching for a glass of iced milk. 

Whether you love it or hate it, people around the world enjoy spicy food for various reasons, including the stimulation of appetite in tropical regions and triggering the release of pleasant endorphins through heat mimicry. If you're looking for a tantalizing culinary adventure, check out this list of the 10 spiciest cuisines from around the world.

1. Jerk chicken, Jamaica

Jerk chicken at The Jamaican Grill. Hajime Nakano. CC BY 2.0.

Jerk seasoning is a mixture of spices such as onion powder, garlic powder, cayenne pepper, dried parsley, ground clove, and cumin that bring a taste of the Caribbean to any diner. However, it is scotch bonnet peppers that bring the heat to this Jamaican dish. On the Scoville heat unit scale, which measures the number of times an active component of peppers needs to be diluted by sugar water to achieve a neutral taste, scotch bonnet peppers are nearly 100 times hotter than jalapeno peppers. Jerk chicken, a popular dish that can be made with either bone-in or deboned chicken breast, is typically marinated or dry-rubbed with this spicy seasoning. In Jamaica, where the dish originated, people place charcoals in a fire pit with pimento wood on top, then put the seasoned chicken on the wood. The slow cook that lasts for hours allows the chicken to absorb the fragrant oil and smoke from the pimento wood, rendering its piquant taste.

2. Sik Sik Wat/Doro wat, Ethiopia

Demera Ethiopian at Chicago French Market. Kurman Communications, Inc. CC BY 2.0.

Doro Wat or Sik Sik Wat of Ethiopia is a classic slow-cooked Ethiopian stew simmering in dried red chilies, paprika, cayenne, and fenugreek. Berberé, a paprika-based mixture, and Niter Kibbeh, a fragrant, herb-infused clarified butter, are the two main seasonings that give the stew its rich flavor. Boiled gently in the caramelized onions, the tender chicken or beef is often combined with a tangy piece of injera, which is Ethiopian bread made from fermented teff flour. Before the stew is fully cooked, peeled, hard-boiled eggs are added to absorb the zesty spices and furnish the bright, mouthwatering red of the dish. It is also a staple of Ethiopian holiday celebrations like Christmas and Easter, particularly popular during the 43-day fast before Christmas. Many Ethiopians prefer to have this spice-filled meat stew as their first choice after abstaining from meat. 

3. Bean cake, Brazil

Bean cake. Stephanie.CC BY 2.0.

Popular in Brazil, bean cake is a street food dish made of deep-fried, peeled black-eyed peas beans filled with spicy pastes including cashews, shrimp, and palm oil. These patties offer a crispy exterior and a soft, pillowy interior. Its filling opens to a range of enticing ingredients, from traditional vatapa with palm nut sauce and spices to modern versions with cheese and salsa. The street food, which originates from Bahia state, has  roots in West Africa. Historically sold by Afro-Brazilian women (Baianas) on the streets who dress in traditional costumes, bean cake is not only a delicious treat with its vibrant flavors and texture, but also holds cultural significance. The slave descendant woman used to sell Bainas for a living and earn their freedom in the 19th century, Whether enjoyed as a snack or a full meal, it is usually served with a tomato salad and homemade hot pepper sauces.

4. Potatoes Huancayo style, Peru

Peruvian Potatoes Huancayo style Sauce. AgainErick.CC BY-SA 3.0.

A traditional Peruvian dish known as “Potatoes Huancayo style Sauce,” Papa a la huancaína is made of rustic and flavorful potatoes covered in cheese, milk, and a variety of spices. The unique flavor of Aji Amarillo, a Peruvian chili pepper that is an inseparable part of the local cuisine, is the highlight of this deceptively simple salad dish. Without the harshness and heat of a typical pepper, Aji Amarillo is fruity and subtle, making it a perfect option for a hot summer day. The origin story of Papa a la huancaína also set this dish apart. According to local legend, the dish originated in the late 1800s in the central Andes Mountains city of Huancayo, where a woman vendor sold it to railroad workers. Its bold flavors, robust spices, and creamy texture quickly gained popularity and became a much-anticipated lunchtime treat for the workers. Today, Papa a la huancaína is on the menu of most restaurants serving traditional Peruvian cuisine.

5. Kimchi Jjigae, Korea

Tuna kimchi jjigae. Chloe Lim.CC BY 2.0.

Kimchi Jjigae is a traditional Korean dish renowned for its bold and spicy flavor. Made from fermented Napa cabbage and a mix of spices, including garlic, fish paste, chili paste, and rice paste, the preparation process can take days or even months. Combining Kimchi Jjigae with other ingredients such as tofu, pork belly, and scallions creates a satisfying meal. Kimchi Jjigae is also versatile and can be adapted to suit personal tastes and preferences. For example, some Koreans prefer to add beef, tuna, clams, or mussels to the dish, while others enjoy it simply served over a bowl of rice. Regardless of the additional ingredients, this dish is well-known for its comforting spiciness and ability to refresh the palate.  The ease of preparation, combined with its transformative taste, makes Kimchi Jjigae a favorite for many.

6. Tom Yum, Thailand

Vegetable Tom Yum Soup. Alpha. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Tangy, spicy, and savory, Tom Yum is a popular and aromatic Thai soup that is made from a mix of fresh lemongrass, kaffir lime leaves, galangal (a type of ginger), chilies, fish sauce, lime juice, and mushrooms. “Tom”refers to a boiling process, “Yam” is a spicy and sour salad, and "Kung" means shrimp. While you will likely find the refreshing soup cooked in every neighborhood, the history behind the dish largely remains unknown. Though there was no clear documentation of the origin of the soup, it is likely that the abundance of fresh shrimp in the Chao Phraya River in Thailand is believed to give rise to the sour, spicy soup. Over time, the three essential ingredients, lemongrass, kaffir lime leaves, and galangal also evolved, while keeping its iconic flavor intact. For many Asians, Tom Yum is also a go-to remedy for colds and coughs, as the fresh herbs help soothe the body and warm the stomach.

7. Vindaloo, India

Vindaloo with other dishes. Bing. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Vindaloo, hailing from Goa in western India, is known for its fiery heat and mouthwatering sourness. This Indian delicacy is crafted with a base of meat such as pork or chicken, which is seasoned with a blend of spices like chili peppers, ginger, garlic, cumin, coriander, turmeric, and vinegar. This mixture is then slow-cooked to create a luscious, delicious stew. The dish is typically served with rice or Indian bread, such as naan or roti, and is often accompanied by a variety of side dishes, including chutneys, pickles, and raita. 

8. Bun Bo Hue, Vietnam

Good strong beef broth and a clear chicken broth in Bun Bo Hue. Pho Hoang.CC BY-SA 2.0.

The Vietnam noodle soup of Bun Bo Hue boasts distinct and rich flavors from its thin round noodles, a blend of beef and pork, and a hearty, savory broth. To create the broth, cook beef bones or shank with lemongrass, then season with fermented shrimp sauce and sugar. Spicy chili oil is added later during the cooking process, giving the dish its signature reddish-brown hue. A meal full of flavors and textural contrasts, Bun Bo Hue has various flavors depending on its geographical origins and climate. The most authentic Bun Bo Hue usually appears in street food stalls in the city of Hue, along with traditional Hue salt coffee shops.

9. Hotpot, China

Farewell Hotpot. Momo. CC BY 2.0.

Hotpot readily comes to mind when discussing the world's spiciest dishes, but  is so much more than a scary, peppery soup. At its core, a hotpot is a simmering pot of robust broth that diners use to cook a variety of meats, vegetables, and noodles to their desired level of doneness. It is a classic representation of communal food culture in China, usually occupying the center of the table at a family gathering or new year's feast. A hot pot meal features a range of ingredients including beef, lamb, pork, seafood, sliced vegetables and greens, and quick-cooking noodles. The iconic Chongqing hotpot stands out for its blistering Sichuan pepper, and the region itself is known for incorporating spicy elements into most of its dishes, from soup to stir fry.

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Hope Zhu

Hope is a Chinese international student at Wake Forest University in North Carolina studying sociology, statistics, and journalism. She dreams of traveling around the globe as a freelance reporter while touching on a wide range of social issues from education inequality to cultural diversity. Passionate about environmental issues and learning about other cultures, she is eager to explore the globe. In her free time, she enjoys cooking Asian cuisine, reading, and theater.

Books: To Ban or Not to Ban

Inside the fight to ban books or keep them on shelves.

A display advertising banned books. Colette Cassinelli. CC BY-NC 2.0.

Maia Kobabe didn’t expect to become a household name, at least not in most households. Readers of Gender Queer, her bestselling graphic novel about non-binary identity, surely told friends and family with whom they felt comfortable about the emotionally rich, nuanced, and textured book. Others have a less flattering assessment. They see the book as the vanguard of a national movement to corrupt and “groom” young minds into mouthpieces of woke-speak, gender fluidity, and racial grievance. Just ask No Left Turn or Moms for Liberty, two grass-roots organizations campaigning to ban the book in schools across the country. Although Gender Queer received rave reviews, reached the New York Times Bestseller list, and garnered fans across the country, it is currently the most banned book in the United States.

As a banned author, Maia Kobabe is in good company. Eir peers on the list of newly banned books include John Green, Art Spiegelman, and even Toni Morrison, a Nobel laureate. The books range from young adult fiction to mature masterpieces, graphic novels to sweeping epics, but they all share one thing in common. They engage topics that are politically explosive. 

A library advertising banned books. Ali Eminov. CC BY-NC 2.0.

Namely, they address queerness and race. According to a comprehensive report from PEN America, 41% of books targeted by banning efforts contained LGBTQ themes, and 40% centralized around characters of color facing racism and discrimination. Others were targeted for sexual content or coverage of activism. Curiously, 9% target biographies and memoirs. Among the books grass-roots organizations hope to see banned is an entry in the famous children series Who Was . . . ? about Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotamayor, the first Latina justice on the Supreme Court. 

A library advertising banned books. Ali Eminov. CC BY-NC 2.0.

These grass-roots organizations, roughly fifty in number, function at the national, state, and local levels. 73% formed after 2021. This coincides with rise in headlines about Critical Race Theory in classrooms and the “Don’t Say Gay” Bill in Florida. Groups like Moms for Liberty and No Left Turn were founded precisely to combat the rising prevalence of queer and racial subjects in schools. No Left Turn, one grass-roots organization, defends “American founding principles” and “family values” while advocating the reinstatement of “objective thinking.” Moms for Liberty, another grass-roots organization with 30 chapters in 18 states, asserts “parental rights” to protect their children from adult or otherwise objectionable material, claiming they are “fighting for the survival of America.”

The Supreme Court has previously ruled on such issues. The 1969 decision Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District maintains that students do not “shed their constitutional right to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate.” Advocates against book bans cite children’s right to freedom of information, even to controversial viewpoints and topics. Those who support them claim that the books in question contain subject matter unfit for young, malleable minds. When Gender Queer mentions a brief encounter with a sex toy, some see a moment in a queer coming-of-age while others see pornography. 

Even elected officials have begun to advocate the banning or restriction of certain books. In October of last year, Texas state lawmaker Matt Krausse sent a letter to schools across the state asking if they carried any books on an 850-title-long list of books that “might make students feel discomfort, guilt, anguish, or any other form of psychological distress because of their race or sex.” Political observers noted that Krausse was gunning for statewide office at the time, so his letter signals that banning or restricting access to such books could win over a conservative base.

Ironically, the books banned, such as Gender Queer, Maus, or All Boys Aren’t Blue have attained an even higher status as a result of the efforts to ban them. It is not uncommon to walk into a Barnes and Noble and see a display that says, “Read a Banned Book.” Maia Kobabe went so far as to note in an interview for Slate, “In a strange way, this is raising my profile as an author.” Perhaps there really is no such thing as bad publicity. 

Gender Queer by Maia Kobabe. Pesky Library. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Primary among the concerns of authors, librarians, and organizations like PEN America are the availability of literature to marginalized people in hostile areas. In this arena, those seeking to ban books wield a strategic edge over those hoping to keep them available. Such is evident from the organizational efforts of No Left Turn, Moms For Liberty, and especially CatholicVote. The last of these groups organized a “Hide the Pride” event in which parents checked out LGBTQ-related books to prevent others from reading them. This crafty tactic could backfire, however. Increased checkouts of LGBTQ-related titles could signal to librarians an increased interest in them. The answer would be to buy more.

You can shop the top 20 banned and challenged books in our bookshop. Check out the titles below.

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Michael McCarthy

Michael McCarthy's fiction, nonfiction, interviews, and book reviews have appeared in The Adroit Journal, Barzakh Magazine, Beyond Queer Words, and Prairie Schooner, among others. Currently, he is transferring from Haverford College to University of Carlos III in Madrid, Spain, where he intends to major in the Humanities. He is also seeking publication for his poetry chapbook Steve: An Unexpected Gift, written in memory of his late uncle. He can be reached at @michaelmccarthy8026.

6 Ancient Lost Cities To Visit Today

These ancient cities hold generations of knowledge and secrets about those that inhabited them centuries ago. 

The ancient lost city of Petra in Jordan. Giuseppe Milo. CC BY 2.0.

From the incredible stone structures in Petra, Jordan to the geometrically revolutionary Mayan pyramids at Chichén Itzá, ancient civilizations around the world have long been of fascination to historians, scientists and travelers alike. Unfortunately, there are countless ancient cities — once thriving and metropolitan — that have been ravaged by time, war and nature. Here are six such ancient cities that now lie in ruin, but whose secrets are still available for you to enjoy.

1. Ctesiphon, Iraq

A view of the Tāq Kisrā at the ancient city of Ctesiphon in Iraq. Taisir Mahdi. CC BY-SA 2.0.

The Persian Empire began in 559 BCE and was revolutionarily metropolitan in their emphasis on the development of science, art and technology in the name of culture and religion. As the empire’s winter capital, the city of Ctesiphon located in central Iraq was often at the center of this progress. One of the most impressive remaining structures is the palace of King Khosrow I who ruled from 531 to 579 AD and was principally responsible for the construction of the vaulted brick vaults of the Tāq Kisrā. To this day, the hall is one of the largest brick arches in the world.

In 637 AD, an Arab invasion resulted in the successful conquest of Ctesiphon, using the site as a makeshift mosque. However, the newcomers soon chose to locate their capital at the northern city of Baghdad instead, leaving the abandoned city to become a quarry.

2. Mesa Verde, Colorado, USA

The cliff palaces in Mesa Verde National Park are the largest of their kind in North America. Scrubhiker. CC BY-NC 2.0.

Located within the bounds of Mesa Verde National Park in Montezuma County, Colorado, the prehistoric settlement of cliff palaces is the largest collection of its kind in North America. The plateau, which is almost 2,600 meters (roughly 8,530 feet) above sea level, was once inhabited by Ancestral Puebloans, whose community flourished from approximately 450 to 1300 BCE. Because of the incredible condition in which the 600 sandstone and mud mortar constructions were preserved, Mesa Verde was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978, making it one of the first in America. These dwellings include a number of multi-story structures as well as small villages of up to 200 connected rooms, while other functional and ceremonial buildings, such as shrines, field houses, farming terraces and displays of rock art, are also scattered across the landscape.

This ancient city was completely abandoned by the Ancestral Puebloans by 1300 BCE. A devastating drought beginning in 1276 and lasting for over two decades brought an end to their once prosperous harvest, simultaneously driving away the animals they hunted for food.

3. Xanadu, Inner Mongolia, People’s Republic of China 

The giant rock carvings of Kublai Khan at the archaeological site of Xanadu in Inner Mongolia. China Discovery. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

The once magnificent palaces at Xanadu (Shangdu in Mandarin) were first made known to the western world by Marco Polo after his visit to the Mongol court in 1275 BCE. The city was the summer capital of the empire from 1274 to 1364 BCE and was made prominent by Kublai Khan who chose the site to construct his luxurious summer palace complete with gardens and gilded rooms. Xanadu stretched far beyond the palace, however, covering a grand total of 250 square kilometers (about 96.5 square miles) and housing roughly 200,000 people at the height of its activity. The city was unique for its blend of traditional Mongol and Chinese architectural elements which aligned with the empire’s desire to combine elements of the Mongolian nomadic hunting culture with the farming lifestyles of the local Chinese.

The city suffered significant neglect following the decline of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in 1368 BCE, becoming completely abandoned around 1430. The site became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012 in order to help preserve the few remaining temples, tombs and other ruins.

4. Great Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe

A view of the ancient stone complex in the medieval city of Great Zimbabwe. Christopher Scott. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

The ruins of Great Zimbabwe are one of the only remaining sites from the wealthy medieval African trading empires that largely controlled life on the continent’s eastern seaboard. Built in the eleventh century by the Shona people on a hilltop plateau, the city served as the capital of their trading empire for four centuries and was thus well protected by the five meter high (just over 16 feet) granite wall surrounding the inner settlements. The global prominence of the Zimbabwean trade is evidenced by the Arab coins and Chinese and Persian pottery fragments excavated by archaeologists among the ruins. Among the various sections that make up the site, the oldest is the hill complex which is believed to have been the religious center of the citadel and dates back to 900 BCE.

Though historians are not sure exactly why the site was abandoned in the fifteenth century, it was likely due to a combination of overpopulation in the area and the subsequent depletion of local resources.

5. Tikal, Guatemala

The Tikal ruins in Guatemala are a magnificent display of ancient Mayan architecture. chenisyuan. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Located within the aptly nicknamed “Maya Forest” in the northern Guatemalan province of Petén, Tikal National Park comprises 575 square kilometers (roughly 222 square miles) of tropical jungle and ancient Mayan ruins. This incredible collection of structures date back to the Preclassic Period of the Mayan empire which ran from 600 BCE to 900 AD. Of the spread, archaeologists have identified a more central urban concentration of temples, palaces, residential buildings, terraces and sports grounds. These, in addition to the countless monuments, stone carvings and mural paintings which have all been exceptionally well preserved, are testaments to an artistic and technical sophistication far beyond its time. These ruins, in addition to the amazingly biodiverse jungle that surrounds it, were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979 in order to ensure the continued preservation of the ruins and to protect the thousands of plant and animal species that reside within the park.

Historians most widely believe that a sudden surge of overpopulation around the year 900 AD and the resulting strain on natural resources in the area led to widespread crop failure. This in turn forced the Mayan residents of Tikal to leave their homes, with the complete abandonment of the city coinciding with the end of the 10th century.

6. Ephesus, Turkey

The facade of the Library of Celsus still stands amongst the ruins of Ephesus in Turkey. H Weber. CC BY-SA 2.0.

The ancient harbor city of Ephesus sits on the western shore of modern day Turkey by the Aegean Sea, but was founded in the 11th  century BCE by an Ionian prince according to legend. While exact chronologies of the city’s history are up for debate, it is known that Ephesus changed hands a number of times over the course of its history, coming under the rule of the Persian, Roman and Ottoman empires, each leaving its mark on the city’s culture. These influences are evident in the varied architecture of the many remaining structures at the ruin site, from the famed Temple of Artemis that was said to be four times larger than the Parthenon, to the open air amphitheaters, agoras and aqueducts built in the traditional Roman style. 

Following a devastating earthquake in the mid-sixth century AD, Ephesus was left in extreme disrepair and vulnerable to the impending Arab invasions that would see most of the population leave the city. By the time the Ottoman Empire arrived in the 15th century, the city and its once prosperous harbor were practically already abandoned.

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Tanaya Vohra

Tanaya is an undergraduate student pursuing a major in Public Health at the University of Chicago. She's lived in Asia, Europe and North America and wants to share her love of travel and exploring new cultures through her writing.

Devastation in Pakistan: Information and How to Help

One third of Pakistan is underwater due to flooding, killing more than a thousand and destroying the homes of millions. 

Sindh province in Pakistan underwater 2022. Ali Hyder Junejo. CC BY 2.0. 

Since June of 2022, Pakistan has been hit with floods, monsoons and tsunamis. These floods have tragically ended the lives of thousands, including many children, and forced millions of families to abandon their homes, as an astonishing one third of the country is underwater as of September, causing the death of approximately 1,500 people. Many people are wondering how an environmental disaster of this scale is possible: how have the floods not ceased for months, and how can people around the globe help the people of Pakistan? Scientists say it all comes back to climate change. For about two months prior to the floods, Pakistan experienced severe heat waves, with temperatures ranging from 40 degrees celsius to a high of 51 degrees celsius (a range of 104 to 123 degrees fahrenheit). These heat waves alone qualify as an environmental crisis, but what they led to was much worse. 

There are two primary reasons that this heat wave led to flooding. The first is that hot air tends to contain more moisture than cold air, leading to higher rates of rainfall following the heatwave. The second is a devastating effect of climate change that has been seen all over the world: higher temperatures cause glaciers to melt, flooding into bodies of water which then overflow. In the case of Pakistan, this overflow of water has caused dams to break, leading to extremely dangerous floods, with water unexpectedly rushing onto the land.

Previous flood in Pakistan, 2010. Oxfam International. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0. 

These disastrous climate events have resulted in destroying agricultural products, displacing roughly 30 million Pakistanians and killing over 1,000 people, with around 500 being children.  The destruction of crops has led to further economic crises as well as increased hunger and disease. The chief of the World Health Organization noted an increased risk of several diseases in Pakistan, such as gastrointestinal diseases, skin infections and respiratory illness. Additionally, many hospitals have been destroyed, leaving the country even less prepared to address the millions of people in need. 

Get Involved

There are several organizations which are sending aid to Pakistan right now, such as UN Women, which is sending food, medical supplies and sanitary products to Pakistan. There are also several Pakistan-based organizations to support, such as HANDS Pakistan and the Indus Hospital & Health Network, which provides free healthcare to people in need in Pakistan, at a more-important-than-ever moment like this.

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Calliana Leff

Calliana is currently an undergraduate student at Boston University majoring in English and minoring in psychology. She is passionate about sustainability and traveling in an ethical and respectful way. She hopes to continue her writing career and see more of the world after she graduates.