In Mongolia, a Summer Festival for the Ages

For a few days in early July, the people of Mongolia eat, dance and play “the three games of men” during a storied festival called Naadam.

The 2012 Naadam opening ceremony in Ulaanbaatar. Carsten ten Brink. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Mongolia is a country primarily known for its nomadic inhabitants and isolated location. Positioned between Russia and China, it is easily overlooked in the midst of these global giants. Its relative emptiness does not help matters; only 3.3 million people inhabit Mongolia’s 603,909 square miles , making it the least densely populated country in the world. But every summer, those 3.3 million come together in a celebration of sports, culture and Mongolia’s past. This celebration is called Naadam, and as far as festivals go, it is one of the last of its kind.

In ancient times, when Ghengis Khan and his horde of Mongols were inhabiting what would eventually become Mongolia, soldiers were selected for battle based on their skills in various sports. Wrestling, horse racing and archery in particular were activities that Khan believed a good soldier should, and would, excel at. Before and after battles, his battalions would organize and participate in sports competitions. These local competitions evolved into what Naadam is now. 

As a consequence of the 1921 Mongolian People’s Revolution, which brought the nation independence from China, Naadam’s essence was altered. It was officially sanctioned as a national holiday, with a date set in the second week of July. Mongolia’s capital of Ulaanbaatar became the home of “National Naadam,” the biggest and most important celebration of the holiday. Most importantly, the festival became less of a violent competition and more of a national celebration; an emotional change which remains today. 

Every celebration of Naadam features the three main sports of Mongolia; wrestling, horse racing and archery. All three sports have histories in Mongolia that are older than the country itself. For example: if a rock carving found in central Mongolia is anything to go by, wrestling competitions have been around in the county since the Bronze Age. Naadam features the grandest of all Mongolian wrestling competitions; up to a thousand or more take part in the Ulaanbaatar tournament. Before their matches, wrestlers often mimic local birds such as eagles, hawks and vultures. By doing well in the competition, wrestlers can receive titles based on these animals—“hawk of Ulaanbaatar,” for example, would be given to a wrestler who makes it to the final few rounds.

The final thing to note about Mongolian wrestling is the dress code, which is very particular. Wrestlers must don a four-sided hat, shorts, boots, and a shoulder vest that exposes the chest. The legend is that the open vest was put into practice after a woman snuck into the male-only wrestling competition in ancient times by pretending to be her father, and eventually won the competition. Such deceptions have been made impossible by exposing the chest of the wrestlers; to this day, Mongolian wrestling continues to be an exclusively male sport.

Naadam wrestling in the village of Tariat. Evgeni Zotov. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Horses are a large part of Mongolian life—nomadic tribes continue to depend exclusively on them for transportation. It follows that horse racing is extremely popular in the nation. According to Naadam’s official website, around 180,000 horses race during the holiday. All of Naadam’s races are very long in distance—at least in comparison to western competitions. The Kentucky Derby is about 1¼ miles long; a Naadam race can be up to ten times that.

Mongolian jockeys are incredibly wily and experienced; most Mongolians learn to ride a horse when they are just five years old. The jockeys treat their horses with incredible care. Before, after and even during the races, they are said to sing complimentary songs to their steeds.

The final sport of Naadam is archery, which is said to be even older than wrestling in Mongolia. Naadam’s official website hypothesizes that archery has been around in Mongolia since the Neolithic period, which ended in 4,500 BC. It was first used for hunting—later on, Ghengis Khan would employ it in his battles and sports competitions.

Male, female and child archers all compete at Naadam, wearing traditional costumes made of colorful cloth. There are three categories of the sport—Khalka, Buriat and Uriankhai—each of which come from different tribes and have different sets of rules. Only men are allowed to practice Uriankhai archery, for example.

While these three sports are the core of Naadam, the festival does not begin and end with them. There are smaller carnival games, singing and dancing. National cuisine is enjoyed; Khuushuur, a fried pancake with meat, is the most popular dish. Airag, a fermented, alcoholic drink made from horse milk, is also popular.

However, Naadam’s most important attribute is not the food, the history or the sports competitions. It is the fact that for a few summer days, the sparse vastness of Mongolia is filled. Whether in Ulaanbaatar or in a tiny village, Naadam brings Mongolians together to celebrate a culture that few in the world know anything about. This quiet happiness is the magic of Naadam; it is a magic that will continue long into the future.

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Finn Hartnett

Finn grew up in New York City and is now a first-year at the University of Chicago. In addition to writing for Catalyst, he serves as a reporter for the Chicago Maroon. He spends his free time watching soccer and petting his cat

The Oldest Russian Theatre is in Latvia

The Mikhail Chekhov Riga Russian Theater in Riga, Latvia, faced political censorship under the Soviets but managed to keep its doors open.

Riga Russian Theater, 2018. Olaf Meister. CC BY-SA 4.0

Established in 1883, the Mikhail Chekhov Riga Russian Theater was the first of two kinds: the first professional theater in Latvia and the first Russian-language theater outside Russia. Before it was founded, there were no permanent Russian theaters in the capital city, only the occasional amateur performance, and it is thus deeply rooted in the history and development of professional theater in Latvia. Today the theater offers a mix of classical plays and modern, experimental works.

In 2006, the theater, known previously as the Riga Russian Drama Theater, was rechristened the Mikhail Chekhov Riga Russian Theater as a tribute to the actor, director and teacher, who spent two years working in Riga in the 1930s. A friend of Chekhov’s, Janis Karklinsh, quoted one of Chekhov's interviews with the Latvian press from this time: "Great nations crumble under the outcome of materialism and lust for power. The revival of art comes through the small nations.'' It was Chekhov’s opinion that the cultural context of Latvia in the early 1930s was the best ground for "real art.” Germany and France treated art as a "pretty cheap kind of entertainment.” “New art" could only be born in a developing country that was in the midst of cultural renewal. While in Riga, Chekhov directed and acted in five performances. 

The theater continuously confronted the issue of a lack of funding. In the early 1900s, a committee known as the ​​Society of the Guarantors of the Russian Theater in Riga was formed with the task of ensuring “the permanent existence of the Russian theater in Riga.” The First World War disrupted these efforts, and for a period of time between 1915 and 1921, the theater ceased operations. In 1921, the Latvian government made the decision to allocate close to $1,700 a year in order to “support the theaters of national minorities—German, Jewish, Russian” and the theater was able to resume its activities.

On August 5th, 1940, Latvia was occupied by the Soviet Union. Around 35,000 Latvians were killed or deported during the occupation between 1940 and 1941. As a result, the Riga Theater became a public theater and was cut off from its financial support from private entities, facing the political censorship that was common under Soviet occupation. It was not until 1998, less than a decade after Latvia had regained its independence from the USSR, that the Society of Guarantors was revived and the theater could once again receive financial donations.

The theater employs directors and designers from all parts of Europe, including Belarus, Estonia, Lithuania, Germany, Sweden, Italy, and more. Following the tradition of Russian theater, the company often performs pieces that include music and dance, though its repertoire is by no means limited to musicals. Directors employed by the theater strive to choose works that are profound and psychologically provocative in nature and push the boundaries of  drama itself. 

The theater retains a permanent troupe of actors as well as a repertoire of Russian, Latvian and international works, as well as works by young, emerging playwrights. In 2018, the theater inaugurated a studio for children and youth, ages seven to twelve, to train in the performing arts and develop skills in confidence and communication. Although the studio had to pause its workshops during COVID-19, as of 2024 they have resumed.

According to its website, the theater “harmoniously lives in the cross-cultural space, participates in the cultural dialogue—both nationally and internationally,” making it a significant cultural institution for Latvia.

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Rebecca Pitcairn

Rebecca studies Italian Language and Literature, Classical Civilizations, and English Writing at the University of Pittsburgh. She hopes to one day attain a PhD in Classical Archeology. She is passionate about feminism and climate justice. She enjoys reading, playing the lyre, and longboarding in her free time.

Celebrate Pride at Oaxaca’s Annual Parade this June

Color and culture unite in the streets of Mexico’s Oaxaca.

People dancing during parade. Imogen Volland.

It was an overcast day late June, but downtown Oaxaca was anything but dreary. The cobblestone streets were an explosion of laughter and music, the adobe buildings adorned with flags and banners. The parade was a party and everyone was invited. We weaved our way through the bustling streets, singing along to the Selena song blasting from a nearby speaker, passing by bakeries, bars, markets and boutiques.

Last year, I had the privilege of attending Oaxaca’s annual pride parade, which attracts hundreds of locals and tourists alike. Located in southwestern Mexico, Oaxaca is nestled in the Sierra Madre mountain range. The region is renowned for its mouthwatering cuisine, including mole, tlayuda, enfrijoladas and chocolate. It also boasts a vibrant arts scene. The winding streets are adorned with murals, and the region is famous for its handicrafts including candle making, pottery and embroidery. Even with a population of over 300,000, Oaxaca feels like a small town. With pride month expanding worldwide, corporations are finding new ways to capitalize off of the movement, however, the pride parade in Oaxaca is not commercially sponsored. It’s a community effort, celebrating inclusivity, unity and belonging in a historically Catholic country.

People carrying flags during parade. Imogen Volland.

Historically occupied by the Zapotec and Mixtec tribes, Oaxaca has a rich culture steeped in indigenous heritage, celebrated during the Guelaguetza festival in July. The Zapotecs occupied Oaxaca from 500 BCE to 900 CE and were followed by the Mixtecs around 1350 CE. Zapotec culture is unique in that it wasn’t rooted in conquest, and masculinity was associated with more “feminine” hobbies like art, craftsmanship and dance. A third gender is recognized in Zapotec culture, the muxe (also spelled muxhe), people who were assigned male at birth who dress or behave more “feminine.” Gender non-conformity in non-Western cultures dates back centuries. The two-gender binary system prevalent in Western cultures was a product of colonization and imperialism, in which Indigenous tribes were forced to surrender their cultural traditions, including the acknowledgement of a third gender. The Muxe still occupy Oaxaca today, defying heteronormative standards and carrying on the Zapotec tradition.

In 2012, the Supreme Court overturned a law preventing same-sex marriages in Oaxaca. Since the legalization of same-sex marriage across all of Mexico in 2022, Oaxaca has rapidly become one of the country’s most gay-friendly hotspots, featuring a variety of gay-owned and gay-friendly shops, restaurants and bars. Cuizzita Cafe is a queer-owned, community-oriented coffee shop with a casual, comfortable atmosphere, offering board games, puzzles and books for customers to use. Club 502 is Oaxaca’s first gay club with mixed drinks, dancing, karaoke and drag shows. Confetti Pool Club is a queer-owned hostel with a pool, swim-up bar, rooftop seating and live music. The hostel is a six-minute walk from the Mitla archeological site.

People carrying posters on platform. Imogen Volland.

This year, Oaxaca’s annual pride parade will be held on Saturday, June 22 at 3 p.m. from the Fuente de las Ocho Regiones. For more information about the parade, as well as other upcoming pride events in Mexico, follow the link here. For a celebration of life, and of love, I highly recommend visiting Oaxaca this June. Happy Pride Month!

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Agnes Volland

Agnes is a student at UC Berkeley majoring in Interdisciplinary Studies and minoring in Creative Writing, with a research focus on road trip culture in America. She currently writes for BARE Magazine and Caravan Travel & Style Magazine. She is working on a novel that follows two sisters as they road trip down Highway 40, from California to Oklahoma. In the future, she hopes to pursue a career in journalism, publishing, or research.

Italian Night Life Thrives in Abandoned Buildings

Thanks to self-managed social centers, Italians have found a space to enjoy concerts, dinners, movie nights and more

Concert at XM24. Zeroincondotta. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 

Since the 1970s, self-managed social centers have offered a place for Italians to gather as a community. Usually located on the outskirts of cities, these centers are established and operated entirely by locals. They are often formed as a direct response to social issues such as lack of affordable housing, drug addiction and marginalization. Members of the community occupy buildings that have fallen into disuse, such as schools, apartment complexes, forts and even farms. 

CSOA Forte Prenestino. boklm. CC0 1.0

The legal status of these centers varies, and some face eviction by authorities despite their value to the community. Many of the centers take a strong political stance, defining themselves as anti-fascist, anti-sexist, anti-racist and anti-capitalist. These spaces serve as important refuges for members of the community and a place for diverse groups of people to meet and collaborate.

Concert at XM24. Zeroincondotta. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 

One of the most famous of these self-managed social centers was XM24, or ExMarket, of Bologna. It emerged during a period of repression as the mayor of the city engaged in a campaign against social housing and squatter movements. The center established itself in several abandoned spaces, including a former fruit and vegetable market from which it took its name. It offered a number of services to the community, including a cafe, a bike shop, a vegetable garden, live concerts, a gym, and a dormitory for migrants, refugees and the houseless. It was run by a general assembly of local volunteers.

XM24 Graffiti, Against those who close our spaces, let’s ignite our rage. Zeroincondotta. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

In 2013, XM24 was able to reach an agreement with the local government, allowing the center to operate independently and utilize the abandoned spaces. However, the agreement expired in 2017. Members of the community attempted to protest the eviction in a struggle with the city that lasted two years, but in 2019 the space was evicted and bulldozers arrived to clear it out. As of 2024, the center no longer exists. 

Leoncavallo Spazio Pubblico Autogestito. Robertino Radovix. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 

XM24 was not the only self-managed center to be evicted by the government, but many centers have still found a way to thrive. The Leoncavallo Spazio Pubblico Autogestito of Milan still offers jazz concerts, stand-up comedy, dinners, English lessons and more to locals. It is currently open Thursdays through Sundays in the afternoon and evening, although they face eviction on June 18th, 2024 by the bailiff and the property’s lawyers. 

Daniele Sepe & Aldolà Chivalà. L’Asilo. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 

Je So’ Pazzo is a self-managed center in the Marterdei district on the outskirts of the city of Naples in a former asylum for the criminally insane. When it was occupied in 2015, it was managed by the Penitentiary Police. Volunteers collaborate with local associations to house, collect clothing for and distribute meals to the houseless. Their services include medical clinics, psychiatric support and migrant aid. They also offer a number of recreational activities, such as Naples’ only indoor rock climbing wall, a football pitch, a gym, a theater, a bar, social dinners, concerts, and so much more. It is still active and open 24 hours a day, six days a week. Like most places in Italy, it is closed on Sundays.

Concert at CPA, Firenze. GothEric. CC BY-SA 2.0

The Centro Popolare Autogestito Firenze Sud and LaPolveriera SpazioComune are both self-managed centers located in Florence. Like other social centers, they offer a variety of recreational activities during the days and the evenings, such as ceramics classes and concerts, as well as important social services for the community.

Whether you are looking to participate in a ukulele workshop, enjoy a dinner and movie, discuss politics with local Italians, or let loose at a heavy metal concert, self-managed social centers are the perfect place.

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Rebecca Pitcairn

Rebecca studies Italian Language and Literature, Classical Civilizations, and English Writing at the University of Pittsburgh. She hopes to one day attain a PhD in Classical Archeology. She is passionate about feminism and climate justice. She enjoys reading, playing the lyre, and longboarding in her free time. 

Journey to Malaysia: The Gawai Dayak Festival

On June 1st travelers can relish in Sarawakian culture at the colorful Gawai Dayak Festival.

A Gawai Dayak float. Baka_neko_baka. CC BY 2.0

In the Iban language, Gawai Dayak means something like "Festival of the Native Ethnic Groups of Sarawak," a state in Malaysia. This festival brings communities together to celebrate the end of the rice harvesting season. Gawai Dayak is a time of gratitude and companionship where people give thanks for that year's harvests and pray for a fortunate future.

Rice agriculture is integral for many Sarawakians. By June the majority of the hard work in the rice fields is done, and Sarawakians have a period of celebration and rest until the next planting season begins in September.

Gawai Dayak festivities begin during Gawai Eve on May 31st. On Gawai Eve, locals conduct a ceremony called Muai Antu Rua to cast away negative spirits and roast rice over bamboo. During the Muai Antu Rua ceremony, unwanted items are collected from Iban longhouses and used in a miring, or offering ceremony, filled with music. 

After the Muai Antu Rua ceremony, attendees await midnight when the sound of a gong kicks off Gawai Dayak. Many activities and traditions are open to locals and visitors during Gawai Dayak. During the celebrations, participants can engage in traditional dances, dance competitions, and enjoy Sarawakian delicacies such as a rice wine called Tuak, which is thought to bring long life, and rice cakes called Penganan. 

Gawai Dayak is a time filled with events and activities. A popular Gawai Dayak tradition is the Kumang and Keling Gawai contests where celebrants elect the festival’s queen and king. Other common Gawai Dayak traditions include blow-pipe demonstrations and rooster fighting.

Gawai Dayak celebrations can continue for several days. During the festivities, travelers have the unique opportunity to visit the Dayak homes, which are often open to visitors during Gawai Dayak.

Many visit the Sarawakian capital Kuching to celebrate Gawai Dayak. While the official date for Gawai Dayak is June 1st, in Kuching Gawai Dayak is celebrated the week before the World Harvest Festival. These dates vary every year, but the celebration usually falls at the end of May or the beginning of June.

During the Gawai Dayak in Kuching, there is an array of theatrical and musical performances from both local and international troupes. Explorers can also discover traditional cuisine in local longhouses and experience appetizing aromas, engaging workshops and upbeat music at the Food & Craft Fiesta.

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Madison Paulus

Madison is a student at George Washington University studying international affairs, journalism, mass communication, and Arabic. Born and raised in Seattle, Washington, Madison grew up in a creative, open-minded environment. With passions for human rights and social justice, Madison uses her writing skills to educate and advocate. In the future, Madison hopes to pursue a career in science communication or travel journalism.

Rainbow Destinations: 8 Cities That Shine During Pride

With an estimated one in 10 people around the world identifying as LGBTQIA+, there are many destinations for LGBTQIA+ community members and allies to celebrate Pride, from New York to Taipei.

Pride flag at Pride Parade. William Murphy. CC BY-SA 2.0

The first official Pride parades in 1970 commemorated the first anniversary of the Stonewall Riots. On June 28, 1969, the New York City police raided an LGBTQIA+ safe space called the Stonewall Inn. Six days of protests, where thousands denounced the treatment of the LGBTQIA+ community, followed the raid. Since the first series of Pride parades sprung up across the United States in the 1970s, Pride celebrations have spread to every continent, including Antarctica. 

1. Berlin, Germany

Partygoers at a Pride Parade in Berlin, Germany. David J. CC BY 2.0

Sometimes referred to as ‘the capital of the rainbow’, Berlin is among the most popular LGBTQIA+ travel destinations and boasts many Pride events. During the Pride Weeks between June 28th and July 27th, 2024, Berlin will celebrate LGBTQIA+ Pride with Christopher Street Day and the Lesbian and Gay Street Festival, the largest LGBTQIA+ street festival in Europe. Drawing hundreds of thousands of people, Berlin’s Pride events are vibrant and full of music and performances.

The epicenter of Berlin’s Pride celebrations can be found around Nollendorfplatz Street in Schoneberg. Filled with memorials of LGBTQIA+ martyrs and icons, travelers can immerse in German LGBTQIA+ history. Beyond the Pride festivities, visitors can enjoy events and workshops at the Gay Museum, or explore nightlife in Berlin’s array of clubs and bars. 

2. Cape Town, South Africa

Pride Parade float in Cape Town, South Africa. richie rocket. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

As one of the most welcoming countries for LGBTQIA+ travelers in Africa, South Africa is home to a variety of Pride parades and events. At the end of South Africa’s summer, between February 27th and May 2nd, 2024, Cape Town’s Pride events offer travelers the opportunity to celebrate pride with many unique activities.

From drag brunches to the Pets for Pride Promenade Walk, travelers have many events to choose from beyond the parade itself. Following the Pride Parade on February 27th, 2024, the celebration continues with the Pride Mardi Gras, featuring performances from drag performers, musicians and DJs. 

3. London, UK

A participant in the London Pride Parade. Adrian Snood. CC BY-NC 2.0

Travelers can experience the UK’s biggest and most diverse Pride celebration in London. Since the first Pride Parade in London in 1972, London’s Pride has grown to be one of the largest Pride events in the world. London’s Pride features the Pride Festival along with the Pride in London Parade. 

Throughout June, explorers can experience everything from exhibitions to cabaret shows at the Pride Festival. On June 29th, 2024 at the Pride Parade, attendees can cheer for hundreds of LGBTQIA+ community groups, non-profits, and businesses as they make their way through the streets. 

4. Montevideo, Uruguay

Pride festivities in Montevideo, Uruguay. Montecruz Foto. CC BY-SA 2.0

Often rated as one of the most ‘gay-friendly’ cities in the world, the largest LGBTQIA+ Pride celebrations can be found in Montevideo, where tens of thousands flock to the annual events. Montevideo Pride began in the 1990s and will be celebrated on September 27th 2024.

LGBTQIA+-friendly activities in Montevideo span well beyond official Pride events. In Montevideo, travelers have many LGBTQIA+ destinations at their fingertips, including LGBTQIA+ bars and clubs like the Chains Pub and the Cain Dance Club. Curious explorers also have access to over 40 exhibitions and museums where they can delve further into the city's history and culture.

5. New York, U.S.A

Pride Parade in New York City. DVSROSS. CC BY 2.0

As the birthplace of Pride, New York City is an iconic destination to enjoy Pride festivities on June 30th, 2024. On this day, the streets are filled with rainbows as the Pride March and other Pride celebrations commence.

The Pride March is accompanied by PrideFest, a street fair where attendees can engage in games and other activities while supporting local business owners. At specialized events such as Bliss Days, which celebrates LGBTQIA+ women, participants can enjoy live music from DJs and dance performances. 

6. San Francisco, U.S.A

Decorations for Pride, San Francisco. Lindsey Rodgers. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Pride has been celebrated in San Francisco for 54 years. Since then, the entire month of June has become full of Pride celebrations and events. On June 1st, 2024, there will be the first Block Party during San Francisco Pride. During the Block Party, celebrants can enjoy meals from BIPOC-owned food trucks accompanied by local LGBTQIA+ entertainment and connect with local vendors and businesses. 

On June 7th, 2024 at the Pride Kickoff Party travelers can dive into Pride celebrations alongside live shows from drag to film. Those interested in human rights and international politics can learn from experts at the San Francisco Pride’s Human Rights Summit on June 27th, 2024. San Francisco's Pride month then comes to a close on June 30th with the Pride Parade.

7. Taipei, Taiwan

Pride Parade in Taipei, Taiwan. Ironypoisoning. CC BY-SA 2.0

Every year, between the 27th and the 29th of October, the Taiwan Rainbow Civil Action Organization organizes the largest LGBTQIA+ Pride in East Asia. Taipei is an ideal destination to embrace Pride in Taiwan, with nearly 200,000 people partaking in Taipei’s Pride in 2023.

A part of the Pride festivities is the Taipei Rainbow Festival, where people can support LGBTQIA+-friendly artists and local brands. Accompanying the booths, visitors can enjoy live musical performances by LGBTQIA+ performers and DJs. Besides the lively Pride celebrations, Taipei boasts natural and architectural wonders, from the Yangmingshan National Park to the Longshan Temple.

8. Sao Paulo, Brazil

A banner in the Sao Paulo, Brazil Pride Parade. Mídia NINJA. CC BY-NC 2.0

Between May 30th and June 2nd, Sao Paulo comes to life with Pride celebrations. Beginning with the metropolis's Diversity Cultural Fair and ending with its Pride Parade, the Pride weekend is full of alluring activities for travelers and locals alike.

With nearly 20 floats carrying dozens of performing artists and electronic music filling Paulista Avenue, Sao Paulo’s Pride Parade draws visitors from around the world. During the city's 27th Pride celebration in 2023, over three million people took to the streets for its Pride Parade.

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Madison Paulus

Madison is a student at George Washington University studying international affairs, journalism, mass communication, and Arabic. Born and raised in Seattle, Washington, Madison grew up in a creative, open-minded environment. With passions for human rights and social justice, Madison uses her writing skills to educate and advocate. In the future, Madison hopes to pursue a career in science communication or travel journalism.

May Day Magic: How Different Countries Celebrate

Sixty-six countries around the world recognize May Day, and a variety of different celebrations and traditions can be found throughout Europe.

May Day bouquets. Alyss. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

The roots of May Day are in the Gaelic Beltane Festival and Roman Floralia. In 1891, the first of May also became recognized as International Workers Day. Over the years, May Day festivities have maintained ancient traditions while evolving to include modern activities from picnics to music festivals.

England

Children performing the Maypole Dance. Pete Ashton. CC BY-NC 2.0

England boasts a long history of May Day celebrations. Traditional Maypole dances can still be seen throughout the country. These dances are often performed by children adorned with flowers who hold ribbons connected to the Maypole. 

The ribbons create a colorful design as the children dance around the maypole. Said to represent the increase of daylight between the winter and summer months, this tradition is around 600 years old.

Beyond witnessing this traditional dance, history enthusiasts can witness re-enactments of conflict between the Vikings and Saxons at Corfe Castle in Dorset. 

Finland

May Day picnic in Helsinki, Finland. Ninara. CC BY 2.0

Finnish May Day celebrations are called Vappu, and are celebrated on April 30th and May 1st. During the festivities, travelers can see streets and parks dotted with white hats; these hats are secondary-school graduation caps, which have become a staple of the Vappu celebration. 

During Vappu, Finland is incredibly lively, full of parties, picnics, parades and political speeches. These events are accompanied by several traditional delicacies, including Finnish May Day funnel cakes called Tippaleipa, Finnish donuts called Munkki, and a unique kind of mead called Sima.

France

Lily of the Valley. liz west. CC BY 2.0

In France, May Day is known to be a day of rest when nearly every business is closed in honor of Labour Day, although flower shops and stands are allowed an exception. This is because Lily of the Valley flowers, called Muguet in French, are a staple May Day tradition.

During the holidays, Lilies of the Valley are exchanged between family and friends as a symbol of good luck. During May Day, French streets are strewn with these flowers as this day marks the only time of the year when people are allowed to sell these flowers on the street without requiring a license or taxation.

Germany

Walpurgisnacht celebration, Germany. Michael Panse. CC BY-ND 2.0

On the eve of May Day, Germans celebrate Walpurgisnacht, a spring festival with a history rooted in witchcraft. This tradition has its origin in the belief that witches celebrate the coming of spring on the summit of Blocksberg Mountain. During Walpurgisnacht, festivalgoers can dance around bonfires and indulge in Maibowle, a punch made up of white and sparkling wines and wild woodruff. 

On May Day, parades featuring brass bands make their way through the streets, followed by maypole dances and public gatherings filled with bratwursts and beer. A festival for dark rock and arts has also been celebrated in Leipzig since 1992, drawing goths from around the world.

Greece

Wildflowers in Greece. Kevin Casper. CC0

May Day has been celebrated in Greece long before its association with Labour Day. Protomagia, the traditional Greek May Day celebration, has been a time for Greeks to celebrate rebirth and honor the dead for centuries. 

While traditions vary across regions, many feature lively singing, dancing and rituals. A few of these customs include women singing traditional May Day songs while dancing around bonfires. Children also leap over the bonfires to symbolize the end of winter and banish disease. 

Greenery and flowers have long symbolized vivacity and fertility. In preparation, people collect wildflowers from the countryside and create wreaths. These wreaths can be found on balconies and doors across the country, intended to ward off evil. These wreaths are then preserved and tossed into bonfires during the Feast Day of Aghios Ioannis Klidonas on June 24th.

Ireland

May Day flowers in Northern Ireland. Etrusia UK. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

Traditionally, Ireland celebrated the Beltane Festival, including Maypoles and May Bushes, which were usually Hawthorn bushes decorated with ribbons and occasionally colored eggshells left over from Easter. 

Children in Dublin would wander the streets in search of money, candles or sweets by approaching people and saying “Long Life, a pretty wife, and a candle for the May Bush”.

While these traditions have largely died out, travelers can still find bonfires in counties like Clare and Limerick. Partygoers celebrate throughout the country, enjoying the holiday with family and friends.

Italy

May Day Concert, 2008. Gniliep. CC BY 2.0

For May Day, Italy hosts the largest free music event in Europe. The May Day Concert in Rome's Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano began in 1990 and has drawn thousands of people every year since. At this event, travelers can experience live music and street events.

Beyond the May Day Concert, Italians and visitors alike use the holiday as an opportunity to soak up the sun and indulge in Italy’s rich culture. Italy has many beaches, such as Salento, where people can celebrate the coming of spring along the water. People also flock to San Gimignano, home to incredible wine, architecture, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site at the city center.

Scotland

Performers at the Beltane Fire Festival, 2009. Martin Robertson. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Scotland is another destination where the Beltane Festival is celebrated. Since the 1980s, traditional Beltane celebrations have been revived with modern additions. 

One of the most prominent celebrations occurs on April 30th in Edinburgh. Every year, around 10,000 people from around the world are drawn to the Beltane Fire Festival. During the festival, a procession filled with drums travels through the streets, led by traditional May Day characters like the Green Man and the May Queen. 

Following the procession, there is a three-hour stage performance which is concluded by the lighting of a bonfire. At the festival, visitors have the opportunity to immerse themselves in the traditional performances and support local businesses

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Madison Paulus

Madison is a student at George Washington University studying international affairs, journalism, mass communication, and Arabic. Born and raised in Seattle, Washington, Madison grew up in a creative, open-minded environment. With passions for human rights and social justice, Madison uses her writing skills to educate and advocate. In the future, Madison hopes to pursue a career in science communication or travel journalism.

A Festival of Flight: Explore Japan’s Hamamatsu Kite Festival

Join more than 1.5 million people in May to celebrate the Hamamatsu Kite Festival.

Kites flying during the Hamamatsu Kite Festival. Shizuoka Prefectural Tourism Association. CC BY-SA 2.1 JP

The origins of the Hamamatsu Kite Festival date back more than 450 years. In Japan, kites have been used for both practical and celebratory purposes for over 1,000 years. During the Edo era, kites were flown to celebrate the birth of a first-born son. This tradition then developed into the Hamamatsu Kite Festival where all children are celebrated.

At the beginning of May during Golden Week, Hamamatsu’s skies are filled with over 100 vibrant, traditional kites. The designs of the kites in the Hamamatsu Kite Festival symbolize children and traditions from each town in the district of Hamamatsu. The kite fliers then partake in an aerial battle, attempting to sever each other's kite strings.

As dusk falls, the festivities move from the beach to the city center where the streets come alive with dance and musical performances featuring bells and drums. The traditional music follows nearly 100 artfully decorated floats as they travel through the streets of Hamamatsu. The floats carry children in customary clothing and are pulled by cheering adults with lanterns and flags in hand. 

Some floats are over 100 years old, and travelers can learn about their history at the plaza between the JR-Hamamatsu and Shin-Hamamatsu train stations where a few floats are displayed throughout the day. There are three parade routes, so for those hoping to see all the floats it is recommended that they choose a different route each night.

The location of the kite battles on the Pacific coastline allows travelers easy access to other nearby marvels, such as one of three of Japan’s major sand dunes. The Nakatajima Dunes, known as a famous hatching ground for loggerhead sea turtles, can be found near the kite battles, and are surrounded by coastal forests. 

Not only home to its eponymous Kite Festival, the city of Hamamatsu  is a destination known for its diverse landscapes and impeccable craftsmanship. Along with the coastline, Hamamatsu boasts mountains, a river and Lake Hamana, the birthplace of Japan’s eel-farming industry. Energetic travelers can participate in many activities at Lake Hamana, including windsurfing, swimming and biking. 

Nature lovers will feel right at home among thousands of plant species at the Hamamatsu Flower Park. History buffs can learn about the city’s musical history at the Hamamatsu Museum and explore Hamamatsu Castle.

Hamamatsu is easily accessible from Tokyo. Travelers can take a bullet train from Tokyo Station to Hamamatsu Station in as little as 100 minutes.

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Madison Paulus

Madison is a student at George Washington University studying international affairs, journalism, mass communication, and Arabic. Born and raised in Seattle, Washington, Madison grew up in a creative, open-minded environment. With passions for human rights and social justice, Madison uses her writing skills to educate and advocate. In the future, Madison hopes to pursue a career in science communication or travel journalism.

Buried Tragedy: The Slums Beneath the Streets of Edinburgh

A long-buried mini-city beneath the streets of Edinburgh sheds light on the lives of its 19th century poor

The Edinburgh Vaults. fw42, CC BY 2.0

The city of Edinburgh is known for its gorgeous architecture, rich history and fascinating culture, and over many years has become a prime destination for tourists visiting Scotland. But beneath the Royal Mile lie hidden catacombs and an unsettling history of poverty and crime.

Despite being used as a prime spot for chintzy “ghost tours”, the underground city (referred to varyingly as the Edinburgh Vaults and South Bridge Vaults) has a rich and tragic history. It was constructed back in 1788 as part of the South Bridge Act, which was an attempt to make the rapidly-growing city more traversable. The bridge wasn’t only for travel, however; the arches under the bridge were home to tenement buildings designed to turn the area into a marketplace. The nearly 120 individual vaults became taverns, workshops and storage units for merchants.

Storage in the Edinburgh Vaults. Kjetil Bjornsrud, CC BY-SA 2.5

However, these vaults were not properly sealed against water and eventually started to flood, leading to most businesses completely abandoning them before the turn of the century. The rooms were left largely empty as the Industrial Revolution swept across Britain, and eventually became slum housing for the city’s poor. As jobs began to be automated, more and more citizens were without income and found themselves unable to pay for their homes, sending them out onto the streets and, eventually, down to the South Bridge Vaults.

Since the vaults were almost totally blocked off, many of them were without air circulation and sunlight. This, coupled with a lack of running water and sanitation, made living down in the vaults a waking nightmare. Over time, the vaults became more and more crowded, with many housing several families at once.

A recreation of living conditions in the Vaults. Shadowgate, CC BY 2.0

The vaults were also entirely avoided by the city police. As a result, they became a hotspot for all kinds of crime, from theft and prostitution to murder and body snatching. Rumors have circulated for years that a pair of notorious serial killers used the vaults to store corpses that they would later sell to medical schools for use in classes. While the killings did occur, there is no evidence that the criminals actually used the vaults to store their victims.

It is unknown exactly when the vaults were finally shut down. At some point, they were cleared out and sealed off with rubble to prevent new inhabitants. The vaults were left completely forgotten underneath the city until being discovered and excavated in the 1980s. In the years since, various clubs and venues have taken up residence in the vaults, but the vast majority are still used for ghost tours.

The history of these vaults is overshadowed by the pop-culture appeal of their supposed hauntings, but their very existence shines a light on the grim conditions faced by the poor in the 19th century. The appalling conditions in which these impoverished people lived is bad enough, but the indifference shown by the city’s government was far worse, letting criminals run rampant and leaving entire families essentially trapped in the sunless, disease-ridden catacombs. Today, the vaults serve as a reminder of the shortcomings of industrialism and the suffering endured by the poor around the world throughout history.

Though much of the vault network is still closed off to the public, there are many different tour companies in the city that guide visitors through the accessible rooms. Despite being billed most often as “ghost tours,” the guides are more than receptive to questions about the vaults’ history and tend to spend just as much time describing the vaults themselves as the ghosts that ostensibly still haunt them. Mercat Tours, a well-regarded historical tour company in Edinburgh, does adults-only evening tours regularly, with ticket prices around $28.

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Ryan Livingston

Ryan is a senior at The College of New Jersey, majoring in English and minoring in marketing. Since a young age, Ryan has been passionate about human rights and environmental action and uses his writing to educate wherever he can. He hopes to pursue a career in professional writing and spread his message even further.

Graffiti Capitals: 9 of the World’s Best Cities for Street Art

From Argentina to Estonia, artists around the world commemorate and contribute to city culture through street art.

Street art by Cabaio Stencil in Bueno Aires, Argentina. Parisa. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

1. Bogota, Colombia

Street art in Bogota, Columbia. McKay Savage. CC BY 2.0

Lying in the east Andes mountains, Colombia’s capital Bogota is home to blocks of mural-covered walls. While graffiti has been decriminalized since 2013, the road to get here was violent. In 2011, 16-year-old Diego Becerra was shot and killed by police for spray painting, causing an uproar among Bogota’s residents.

The following advocacy to decriminalize spray painting was successful. The government’s relationship with street art continued to evolve after Justin Bieber visited Bogota in 2013 and was allowed to spray paint with police protection. The hypocrisy of giving special license and support to the Canadian singer spurred further advocacy, and now Bogota’s government actively promotes spray painting and other forms of street art. 

Today, travelers can revel in Bogota’s street art throughout the city, from the airport to downtown. Some must-see destinations include Distrito Graffiti, an industrial area where two whole blocks are decorated with vibrant paint, and La Candelaria, Bogota’s historical quarter featuring murals strewn throughout storefronts and parks.

2. Buenos Aires, Argentina

Street art in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Wally Gobetz. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Home of the record-breaking mural spanning over 20,000 square feet, Buenos Aires boasts a flourishing street art scene thanks to minimal restrictions and generally supportive attitudes. 

Stimulating murals dot the Argentine capital from north to south. Here, artists use cityscapes as a canvas to pay homage to their history and culture through vibrant and satirical murals. 

Travelers have access to a variety of ways to take in these works of art, from strolling about to partaking in self-guided or private tours. For those with tight budgets yearning to experience some of these masterpieces, there are several online exhibits only a click away.

3. Cape Town, South Africa

Street art in Cape Town, South Africa. Tsn92. CC BY 2.0

Situated among mountains on the Atlantic Ocean, Cape Town has a history drenched in creativity in spite of longstanding adversity. Areas like District Six maintained vibrant cultural and artistic diversity throughout Apartheid, while some areas such as Woodstock have had a post-Apartheid revival. 

During the 1980s, Cape Town's graffiti culture materialized as a tool to resist apartheid, with artists like Falko One using their street art to address injustice. Despite 30 years having passed since the collapse of the Apartheid regime, segregation and inequity persist alongside the street art calling attention to them. 

In February 2024, the eighth International Public Arts Festival took place in Cape Town. Each year, the festival offers locals and explorers alike an opportunity to immerse themselves in Cape Town’s street art culture.

4. Lisbon, Portugal

Street art in Lisbon, Portugal. Pedro Ribeiro Simões. CC BY 2.0 DEED

The evolution of Lisbon’s street art is exceptional, transforming a city with predominantly white buildings into one renowned for its color-filled streets over the past three centuries. 

Color began to be incorporated into building designs during the 1750s, and street art as we know it today didn’t appear until the democratic revolution in 1974. Meanwhile, an even deeper past lies underneath the streets in the 2,000-year-old Roman Galleries, where visitors can find ancient inscriptions on the tunnel walls.

Now, buildings across the city serve as canvases for artists, with many spanning several stories. Lisbon street artists don’t limit themselves to spray paint. Artists such as Vhils and Bordalo II get creative with their methods, incorporating chiseling techniques and found objects into their work.

5. Lodz, Poland

Street art in Lodz, Poland. Aira. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

Often referred to as the capital of Polish street art, Lodz is a city with a rich history in the arts, gaining recognition over the years for its audiovisual arts scene ranging from fashion to film.

Many organizations have taken initiatives to support and expand street art in Lodz. Since 2009 the Urban Forms Foundation has been at the forefront of Lodz's street art movement. This organization offers advice to urban artists while maintaining the Urban Forms Gallery, a collection of creatively coated walls intended to bring life and recognition to the community. 

Local street artists like M-City and the Etam Crew enhance the landscape with murals in styles ranging from futurism to realism. Lodz draws urban artists from around the world, with the Urban Forms Gallery project engaging artists from eight countries. 

6. Penang, Malaysia

Street art in Penang, Malaysia. Mohd Fazlin Mohd Effendy Ooi. CC BY 2.0

Hundreds of murals drape the skyline of Penang, Malaysia. The street art movement began in 2012 when the Penang Tourist Board commissioned Ukrainian street artist Ernest Zacharevic. 

Street art in Penang has since been a means of reflecting community culture and values. Zacharevic’s murals center on local communities and history, and can be seen throughout George Town. In the same city, travelers can also admire pieces like the 12-mural series of stray cats created by local organizations using street art to call attention to issues like animal welfare. 

7. Stavanger, Norway

Street art in Stavanger, Norway. Sílvia Darnís. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 DEED

In Stavanger, Norway, explorers can gaze upon the paradox of traditional architecture contrasted with progressive street art. Here, travelers can find a plethora of urban masterpieces created by world-famous street artists like Banksy and local talent like Algebra.

The dynamic street art scene today can be traced back to the Nuart Street Art Festival. Since 2001, the Nuart Festival has gathered teams of street artists from around the world to collaborate on projects throughout Stavanger. Beyond the creation of new street art, the Nuart Festival contributes to Stavanger’s urban art culture by hosting events, tours and workshops around the city.

For those looking to take a step further into the world of street art, some street artists in Stavanger offer classes. 

8. Tallinn, Estonia

Street art in Tallinn, Estonia. Karen Bryan. CC BY-ND 2.0 DEED

Although the emergence of street art in Tallinn, Estonia, is fairly recent, this city has much to offer to travelers seeking masterful creations on city walls. In 2016, an official street art program began, initially centered around street dance, but some initial mural painting provided building blocks for a soon-to-be burgeoning street art movement.

The following year, the Mextonia Festival brought Estonian and international street art into the spotlight. This cross-cultural festival was a gift from Mexico to celebrate 100 years of independence for the Baltic nation. Today, visitors can see collaborative murals from this festival incorporating folk mythology and symbolism. Over 30 murals from the Mextonia Festival dot highways and cover walls throughout the city.

9. Valparaiso, Chile

Street art in Valparaiso, Chile. Gabriel White. CC BY-SA 2.0 DEED

Located on Central Chile’s Pacific Coast and often referred to as the Jewel of the Pacific, Valparaiso Chile is known to be among the most tagged cities in the world. Some murals in Valparaiso created by artists like Roberto Matta date back to the 1960s.

A couple of the best places to view Valparaiso’s breathtaking street art are Templeman Street and the open-air street art museum in Bellavista. Valparaiso’s hilly terrain provides numerous viewpoints for street art gazing. 

A unique piece created in 2012 by Inti Castro spans three buildings and can only be viewed from Paseo de Atkinson in Concepcion Hill and Carcel Hill. Castro’s horizontal giant is far from the only street art you can see at Concepcion Hill, which is a great starting point for self-guided tours.

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Madison Paulus

Madison is a student at George Washington University studying international affairs, journalism, mass communication, and Arabic. Born and raised in Seattle, Washington, Madison grew up in a creative, open-minded environment. With passions for human rights and social justice, Madison uses her writing skills to educate and advocate. In the future, Madison hopes to pursue a career in science communication or travel journalism.

The Rise of Cat Cafes: Popularity and Pitfalls

While they have a rich history and are fun for humans, cat cafes are a hot topic in animal rights ethics.

Cat in cafe window. Atahan Demir. CC0.

Scooping litter, carpets of cat hair, vet visits and medical bills: taking care of a cat—or any other animal, for that matter—can be both tedious and expensive. But on the other hand, cats are adorable, energetic and entertaining furballs. Previously, there was no in between—if you wanted a cat, it was either all in or nothing. Now there is an in-between solution: cat cafes. Cat cafes serve typical coffee shop beverages and pastries with the added bonus of being able to spend time with a variety of cats and kittens. Often cat cafes charge based on time spent at the cafe, with most cafes having set rates for either 30 minutes or one hour with the cats. 

Although cat cafes are currently immensely popular, at one point they weren’t the global phenomenon they are today. The first cat cafe, Cat Flower Garden, was founded in Taipei, Taiwan in 1998. Although there were other cafes to house cats prior to Cat Flower Garden, they were the first cafe to market themselves specifically as being a cat cafe. Now, people from both Taiwan and around the world not only come to play with their fifteen in-house cats, but also to ask for business advice. When Cat Flower Garden first opened its doors, however, business was slow. It took both time and media coverage for people to warm up to the idea of having cats pounce around hot drinks and food.

A cat sitting near a cup of coffee. Bulat Khamitov. CC0.

Tourists brought the idea back to Japan, and in 2004 a cafe in Osaka successfully opened. Multiple cafes opened in Tokyo in 2005 and soon the demand for cat cafes took off. People from around the world traveled to both the original location in Taiwan and the new business ventures in Japan’s metropolises. The cafes opened in Japan were a turning point in this phenomenon’s popularity because cities like Osaka and Tokyo are so densely populated that many people do not have the room or time to be able to take care of cats properly. Thus, people who did not own pets but were still cat lovers could have an opportunity to spend time with their favorite animal. 

As business boomed in Asia, many people in the United States also took note of the cafe's popularity. As the first cafe in the United States opened in Oakland, California in 2014, when pet food company Purina ONE sponsored a pop-up cafe in New York City that same year, the public became even more interested in this new, eccentric concept. But, as cat cafes began to pop up throughout the United States and on a global scale—with openings in Melbourne, Australia, Munich, Germany and London, for example—some began to question the ethics of cat cafes.

Lounging Cat. Pixabay. CC0.

One United Kingdom based animal welfare charity, the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), made a statement that deemed cat cafes unethical due to the poor, unstable socialization of cats and the occasional unclean cafe. Moreover, many cafes do not properly vaccinate or neuter their cats, leading to diseases running rampant among their tenants. Also, while many cat cafes source their animals from rescues, some rely on breeders, giving no succor to the vast number of shelter cats that are left unadopted and, in turn, are euthanized.

At the same time, many cat cafes source their animals from rescues or shelters, which in turn helps them get adopted by cafe patrons. This is why if you want to reap the benefits of cat cafes—which have reportedly been linked to reducing anxiety in humans—you should know how to identify an ethical versus unethical cafe. An easy call ahead can help determine the status of the cafe. First, you can ask where the cats living in the cafe are sourced from, if they can be adopted, and if they have been both vaccinated and neutered. You can also plan a visit to the cafe before investing money in a session. If the cat cafe is dirty, the cats do not have proper spaces to retreat to if overwhelmed, or if the staff do not have proper knowledge of how to properly care for a cat, then it may be safe to deem the cafe unethical. Whether you intend to enjoy some delicious coffee and quick play time with cats or are considering adoption, here are ten popular cafes:

1. Cat Cafe Calico Kichijoji (Park Exit), Tokyo, Japan

2. The Witty Whisker, St. Augustine, Florida, United States.

3. Cat Town, Oakland, California, United States.

4. La Gatoteca, Madrid, Spain

5. Whiskers and Cream, London, England

6. Brooklyn Cat Cafe, Brooklyn, New York, United States

7. Camulet, New Taipei City, Taiwan

8. Crumbs and Whiskers, locations in both Los Angeles, California and Washington, DC, United States

9. Beans Cat Cafe, locations in both Beacon and New Paltz, New York, United States

10. Catfe, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Carina Cole

Carina Cole is a media studies student with a concentration in creative writing at Vassar College. She is an avid journalist and occasional flash fiction writer. Her passion for writing overlaps with environmentalism, feminism, social justice, and a desire to travel beyond the United States. When she’s not writing, you can find her meticulously curating playlists or picking up a paintbrush.

The Extensive Cuisine of Chinese Muslims

From pita bread to lamb, halal Chinese food’s influences stretch from the Mediterranean to Russia and from China to the Middle East.

Street vendors feed crowds with a doughy treat in Urumqi, the capital of China’s Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. People’s Development Bank. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

China has around 23 million Muslims, predominantly made up of the Hui and the Uyghur ethnic groups. Chinese Islam began in 651 A.D., when Islam was first introduced to the country by Arab traders under the Tang dynasty. A diverse array of religions and cultures were brought to Tang China, including Islam, Judaism and Zoroastrianism. However, Islam was the only religion of these to make a lasting impression on the Chinese population. Chinese Islam expanded to different regions and soon developed its own local traditions and foods. The culinary wealth that sprang from Chinese Islamic heritage progressed into popular street foods and dishes still consumed by Chinese people today.

Hui Cuisine

Hui Muslims mostly occupy areas in the Ningxia autonomous region in China’s northwest. Their cuisine is called “qingzhen cai,” loosely meaning “pure truth” in Mandarin. This reflects the widely associated cleanliness of qingzhen restaurants due to their prohibition on smoking and drinking alcohol. Hui cuisine quickly spread across China due to its unique and much-loved flavors. 

Close-up shot of aiwowo. Dozen Dessert. CC BY 2.0.

A decadent Hui dessert that remains popular among street vendors is aiwowo, or “love drops.” These small round buns are made of sweet glutinous rice flour and are dusted with a blend of sesame seeds, sugar and walnut kernel chips. Though aiwowo’s inspiration is from Hui cuisine, the snack has become a popular roadside treat in Beijing.

Lanzhou beef noodles in a hot and earthy broth. Language Teaching. CC BY 2.0.

Another seminal dish of the qingzhen cai tradition is Lanzhou beef noodle soup. Many consider this soup to be the most famous noodle dish in all of China. The base of this hearty dish is an aromatic beef broth boiled with cumin seeds, Sichuan peppercorns, onions, ginger, star anise and cinnamon. The fresh, chewy hand-pulled noodles are placed in the broth on a bed of beef slices and chili oil.

Uyghur Food

Uyghurs first came to China around the 3rd century A.D., and ruled over their own kingdom in the 8th century in present-day northern Mongolia. Today, Uyghur populations are concentrated in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region in far northwest China. The Chinese government has recently gained notoriety for setting up large-scale prison camps in Xinjiang, with critics calling it a “genocide” and an attempt to entirely wipe out the Uyghur populace.

Uyghurs tend to draw flavors from Central Asian, Middle Eastern and Chinese cuisines. Both the Hui and the Uyghurs base their dining experience around beef and lamb, avoiding pork due to religious purposes. 

However, Uyghur foods draw far more on their Turkish influence: baked goods such as girda naan, similar to bagels, are central to their cuisine.

A vendor prepares lamb kebabs on a coal-fired barbecue for a busy night in Xinjiang. S. Tsui. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

In Xinjiang’s capital of Urumqi, visitors can find local vendors selling mutton kebabs, which are pieces of sheep flavored with cumin, paprika, salt and pepper, placed on a skewer and seared over smoky charcoal.

Roasted lamb from a halal restaurant in Beijing. Ulterior Epicure. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Perhaps the most famous Uyghur-inspired dish is roasted whole lamb. Rubbed with a spicy menagerie of cumin, salt, ginger and pepper, the lamb is coated with a flour and yolk batter and baked in a special oven for an hour. This dish is considered a luxury that deserves only the highest-quality meat. 

Pile of nang in Xinjiang. Umami. CC BY 2.0.

Another famous Uyghur staple is nang, which is reminiscent of naan bread: a flat pancake-like bread made of corn flour, wheat flour or sorghum flour. This is a building block of Uyghur cuisine, as it comes in a multitude of flavors and seasonings, from a savory sesame coating to a buttery sweet glaze.

Chinese halal food is embraced all over China today, as it continues to combine influences from around the world into culinary treats. With the expansion of Hui and Uyghur influences into Chinese food culture, the intermingling of various flavors will only broaden the appeal of this special cuisine.

Heather Lim

recently earned her B.A. in Literatures in English from University of California, San Diego. She was editor of the Arts and Culture section of The Triton, a student-run newspaper. She plans on working in art criticism, which combines her love of visual art with her passion for journalism.

17 Breakfasts Around the World

American breakfast foods, like pancakes and waffles, are not the norm across the globe. Breakfasts differ widely in size and taste  across these 17 countries. 

A typical Greek breakfast consists of a number of small dishes. Jay Bergesen. CC BY 2.0

Most Americans grow up hearing that breakfast is the most important meal of the day, and are familiar with U.S. breakfast staples like pancakes, cereal and eggs. However, breakfast around the world doesn’t look the same as it does in the U.S. 

Although elements like breads, cheeses and fruits pop up in breakfasts in many countries, the meal itself widely varies. The type of food served differs around the world, including regional variations within countries. Some nations opt for a sweet breakfast, while others prefer a more savory meal. The size of the breakfast also varies, from Spain and Norway, where breakfast is often just a cup of coffee and a small bite; to the English fry-up, which is a plate loaded with different foods. Here’s what breakfast looks like in 17 different countries. 

A platter of paratha, a stuffed flatbread. Nadir Hashmi. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 

1. India

Breakfast in India varies widely by region. In the north, one traditional breakfast is paratha, a whole wheat flatbread stuffed with potatoes, spices and herbs. It is usually served with veggie or lentil curry or a yogurt sauce. In the south, a breakfast staple is idiyappam—steamed noodles made from rice flour. Idiyappam can be sweet or savory and is typically served with either cardamom-spiced coconut milk, vegetable korma, or a curry. In western India, Khaman Dhokla—savory cakes made from chickpea flour—are a popular way to start the day. Other breakfast items in India include rice dishes like pongal and poha, and breads such as roti and poori. 

Breakfast in Japan is similar to lunch or dinner. Matt@CTU. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0  

2. Japan

A typical Japanese breakfast is not just one item but a spread of foods that make up a well-rounded meal, one that could also be eaten as lunch or dinner. Japanese breakfasts usually include steamed rice, miso soup, some sort of protein like eggs or grilled fish and a number of side dishes such as nori (dried seaweed), natto (fermented soybeans) and tsukemono (Japanese pickles), as well as other small vegetable plates. 

A Bavarian Breakfast includes a special sausage called weisswurst, served with a pretzel, mustard and beer. Andrew Nash. CC BY-SA 2.0 

3. Germany 

Like in Japan, breakfast in Germany is usually a spread of items. To American eyes, a German breakfast might look a bit like a charcuterie board—sliced meats and cheeses are breakfast staples, as well as sausages, brots (bread) and rolls served with butter or jam, and fruits and vegetables. Bavaria, a state in the southeast of Germany, has its own unique breakfast offering: a sausage called weisswurst. Weisswurst, or white sausage, is made from a mix of veal and back bacon, seasoned with parsley, onion and a number of other spices. Weisswurst was invented in Bavaria, and a typical “Bavarian Breakfast” is weisswurst served with pretzels and beer.

Pork and shrimp kuy teav is a common breakfast in Cambodia. Naoto Sato. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 

4. Cambodia

One of Cambodia’s most popular breakfasts is kuy teav, a Chinese-inspired hot noodle soup with rice vermicelli noodles, bean-sprouts, dried onion, carrot, parsnip and fresh vegetables. Lime, chili sauce, fish sauce, or soy sauce are also common add-ins in kuy teav, which can be made with meat options such as fish balls, chicken, or pork. Kuy teav is often enjoyed with a cup of coffee in the morning. Other typical breakfasts in Cambodia include bai sach chrouk (rice with pork) and bobor kreung (rice porridge). 

Calentado makes use of leftover rice and beans from previous meals. Leo Prieto. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 

5. Colombia 

A common breakfast dish in Colombia is calentado, which literally means “heated.” The meal consists of rice and beans—usually reheated from a meal the day before—served with egg, chorizo, grilled beef, or chicharrón (fried pork belly), and cornmeal cakes called arepas.

A breakfast table in Egypt, with ful medames in the foreground and taameya in the background. ~W~. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0  

6. Egypt

Fava beans are an essential element of two popular Eyptian breakfasts: ful medames and taameya. Ful medames is a simple dish made of stewed fava beans mashed with lemon, cumin and garlic, often served with toasted pita and a tomato-cucumber salad. Taameya are sometimes called Egyptian falafel; while they are similar to falafel, taameya are made from fava beans rather than chickpeas. 

Spanakopita, a spinach and cheese pie, is often eaten during breakfast in Greece.  Annieseats.  CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 

7. Greece 

In Greece, as well as other Mediterranean countries, breakfast consists of a series of small dishes: savory pies such as spanakopita (made from spinach, feta and phyllo dough), yogurt with fruit and honey, various cheeses and fresh vegetables. A key element of a Greek breakfast is bread, with one of the most popular being eliopsomo—bread with kalamata olives baked into it. Eliopsomo is often paired with feta cheese and olive oil. 

Bessara—soup/porridge made from split peas or fava beans—served with khobz, Moroccan bread. Momo go. CC BY-NC 2.0 

8. Morocco 

A typical Moroccan breakfast is bessara, which can take the form of either a soup or a porridge made from split peas or fava beans and seasoned with garlic, lemon juice, olive oil, cumin and paprika. The thicker version of the dish is often used as a dip and accompanied by  a loaf of Moroccan bread, or khobz. 

Marraqueta is a popular bread in Bolivia and is often the central feature of a breakfast. UI International Programs. CC BY-ND 2.0 

9. Bolivia 

Marraqueta refers to both a crunchy, oval-shaped bread roll popular in Latin America and a common Bolivian breakfast. The breakfast features a marraqueta roll as the main element. For a quick meal, the roll is served with a slice of cheese or grilled meat and accompanied by a cup of coffee. For a more filling breakfast, usually eaten on the weekend, a marraqueta roll is served with chairo, a thick soup frequently made with lamb and vegetables, or fricasé, a spicy pork stew. 

In Norway, brown cheese called brunost is eaten on toast. Andreas Åkre Solberg. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 

10. Norway 

Breakfast in Norway is a much lighter affair compared to some other countries. Lunch and dinner in Norway are both eaten relatively early; lunch is often at 11am and dinner at 4 or 5pm, which is the reason for the small breakfast. A typical Norweigan breakfast is brunost, a brown goat’s-milk cheese that tastes subtly of caramel. At breakfast, brunost is eaten spread on toast. Another popular breakfast is smoked salmon and scrambled eggs, which is also sometimes served on toast. 

This manakish is topped with za’atar and labneh and folded in half for easier consumption. Alpha. CC BY-SA 2.0 

11. Lebanon 

Manakish (or Manakeesh) are sometimes called Lebanese pizza, and are a go-to breakfast in Lebanon. Manakish are crispy flatbreads which can be topped with almost anything. A few common toppings include za’atar, a Middle-Eastern spice blend; cheese; onion and tomato; and kishk, a popular dairy product made from wheat and fermented milk or yogurt. Manakish are usually about the size of a personal pizza and are eaten folded in half, like a sandwich. 

A Filipino torta is similar to an omelet. whologwhy. CC BY 2.0 

12. Philippines

A favored breakfast item in the Philippines is a torta, which is similar to an omelet. Filipino tortas are filled with ground meat and vegetables—frequently potatoes or eggplant—and usually served over rice. The name torta comes from the Spanish word for cake and is evidence of the heavy Spanish influence in the Philippines.

 Kaya toast and a soft-boiled egg. Hajime NAKANO. CC BY 2.0 

13. Singapore 

Singapore’s kaya toast is a sweet breakfast option. The dish consists of thick slices of butter and kaya spread— =a jam made from coconut milk, eggs and sugar—sandwiched between two pieces of toast. Kaya toast is frequently served with two soft-boiled eggs which serve as a savory counterpart to the toast’s sweetness.  

These lemon-flavored cupcakes, called magdalenas, are often served for breakfast in Spain. Rafel Miro. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 

14. Spain

Spain has a unique meal schedule, with people often eating five times a day: breakfast, tapas, lunch, an afternoon snack and a late dinner usually after 9pm. Breakfast is the smallest meal of the day and typically includes café con leche and toast with jam or cheese. Sometimes they also eat breakfast pastries like magdalenas, a lemon-flavored cupcake, or torrijas, a Spanish bread pudding similar to french toast. 

A Full English breakfast is a fully-loaded plate. Gary Denness. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 

15. United Kingdom

The traditional English breakfast, known as a fry-up or a Full English, appears all over the United Kingdom, with a few variations. A Full English contains meat—typically sausage and bacon—baked beans, tomatoes, a piece or two of toast and two or three over-easy eggs. The meal is usually accompanied by a cup of hot tea or coffee. There are also regional variations of the dish.  For example, Northern Ireland’s Ulster Fry comes with soda bread, and the Welsh Breakfast comes with laverbread, a cake made of seaweed and oatmeal.  

Breakfast in El Salvador. Christopher Porter. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 

16. El Salvador

A classic breakfast in El Salvador includes eggs (often scrambled, though they can be prepared any way), refried beans, cheese and/or sour cream, bread or tortillas and fried plantains, as well as coffee or juice. 

Varenyky are filled half-moons of dough. Bo&Ko. CC BY-SA 2.0 

17. Ukraine

Ukranian varenyky, also called pierogies, are sometimes compared to dumplings or ravioli. They are made of dough shaped into half-moons and often stuffed with a variety of fillings, from fruits and vegetables to meats and cheeses. However, not all varenyky are filled, and the ones that aren’t are considered a breakfast staple. Known as linyvi varenyky (lazy varenyky), these crescents of unfilled dough are boiled and then topped with sour cream, butter, or fruit.

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Rachel is a student at Sarah Lawrence College in Bronxville, NY currently taking a semester off. She plans to study Writing and Child Development. Rachel loves to travel and is inspired by the places she’s been and everywhere she wants to go. She hopes to educate people on social justice issues and the history and culture of travel destinations through her writing.

4 Simple Ways to Go Vegetarian

Adopt an affordable eco-friendly diet by choosing budget-friendly vegetarian options, reducing high-polluting meat and dairy, and supporting sustainable food activism.

Fresh Produce. Paul Collins. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

Embracing a vegetarian diet is a task many now find themselves considering, not only for its numerous health benefits, but also for the lifestyle’s tangible positive impact on the environment. While vegetarianism sounds fantastic in theory, many are dissuaded by concerns of affordability and the perceived difficulty of finding recipes that are tasty and not overly time consuming. People considering vegetarian diets are also frequently plagued by nagging questions about nutrition: How on Earth to get enough protein and ensure that my diet includes enough vital nutrients? 

Fortunately, with proper planning and a few simple strategies, the switch to a plant-based diet can be both nutritious and budget-friendly. Switching from meat to plant-based options requires a holistic approach that prioritizes health, satisfaction and sustainability — both financially and mentally.

1. Embrace Plant-Based Proteins

Protein is a crucial component of any diet and gives us the energy we need to thrive and last throughout the day. Finding delicious alternatives to meat is something that can be rather daunting, but with these tips and suggestions of non-meat alternatives, the essential quest to get enough protein will not be too difficult. Legumes such as lentils, beans and chickpeas, are excellent options as they are not only rich in protein but also cost-effective. Buying these protein-packed staples in bulk can significantly reduce their per-unit price. Tofu and tempeh are other affordable plant-based proteins, often available at reasonable prices in local grocery stores. By incorporating these options into your diet, you can maintain a balanced nutritional profile without spending obscene amounts of money. More and more major grocery chains are beginning to offer vegan meat alternatives such as Beyond Meat, Impossible Food and Tofurky brands. While these choices satiate meat cravings, they tend to be more expensive and less accessible than nonproprietary high-protein plant products.

Legumes and Fresh Produce. Web4camguy. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

2. Choosing Seasonal and Local Produce

Eating based on seasonal offerings of vegetables and other ingredients is not only better for the environment, it is also less expensive. The exportation of produce from far away places across the globe causes a significant increase in carbon emissions, while in-season crops tend to be cheaper and more abundant. Additionally, buying from local farmers' markets or joining community-supported agriculture programs can provide access to fresh, affordable and often organic produce. Frozen fruits and vegetables are also excellent options, as they retain their nutritional value and are typically less expensive than fresh options. By making use of seasonal and local produce, you can create delicious, cost-effective meals. Discovering farmer’s markets can be a fun weekend activity and help you discover locally sourced foods. Buying produce and food items directly from farmers is not only good for your diet; it supports small businesses that have a lighter impact on the Earth.

Fresh Vegetable Produce Options. Eltpics. CC BY-NC 2.0

3. Meal Planning and Cooking in Batches

One of the keys to affordability is effective meal planning. Try creating a weekly or monthly meal plan and make a shopping list accordingly, focusing on versatile ingredients that can be used in multiple recipes. This approach prevents impulse buying and reduces food waste. Batch cooking is another beneficial strategy. By preparing large quantities of meals and freezing individual portions, you can save both time and money. Utilizing leftovers creatively is key. For example, try adding new seasoning or ingredients to spice up what’s left in the fridge.

Dairy free milk alternatives. CC0

4. Snack Ideas and Non-dairy Replacements

Try making your own plant-based milk, such as almond, cashew, or oat milk, which is significantly cheaper than store-bought varieties. Similarly, you can prepare homemade veggie burgers, falafels, or energy bars using basic ingredients like beans, grains and spices. These items are affordable and will keep you satiated throughout the day. You would be surprised just how many foods are actually vegetarian — as long as you get used to double-checking food labels, you should be good to go.

Transitioning to a vegetarian lifestyle does not have to strain your wallet. By following these tips, you can affordably embrace a plant-based diet while enjoying its numerous benefits.  By supporting local farmers, you also invest in sustainability of the food system in your region, strengthening the fabric of your community. It is important to cultivate a heightened awareness of the origins of our food and its effect on the planet, as this leads to progress toward a more mindful and responsible lifestyle. As long as we strive for a better understanding of where our food is sourced and its larger impact, we can work toward preserving.

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Avery Patterson

A rising junior at Vassar College in New York State, Avery is a Media Studies and French double major. She is an avid reader, writer, and traveler. She loves to immerse herself in new cultures and is an avid explorer who loves being in nature. She is passionate about climate and social justice and hopes to use her love of writing as a catalyst for positive change.

Peaks, Prayers, and Paragliding in Nepal

Although Nepal is a small, landlocked country in the Himalayan mountain chain, its majesty, stunning landscapes that sprawl on endlessly and spiritually diverse culture outshine most places I have visited.

Laura Grier

Travelers and adventure seekers from around the world risk their lives flocking to Nepal for a chance to summit our planet’s most famous peak, Mount Everest. Everest's vertex, soaring to an impressive 29,029 feet, stands as the highest point on Earth. Located in the realm more commonly traversed by jetliners than humans, it represents an awe-inspiring summit beyond the reach of ordinary explorers. But there is so much more to this tiny, mountainous country wedged between India and China, which has maintained its own unique culture and vibe despite the behemoths on either side.

With its enchanting blend of sacred temples, revered cows, Buddhist monks, endangered animal sanctuaries and extreme sports like paragliding to get your adrenaline pumping, Nepal will captivate you. There is something for everyone, and you may even come across a rare Yeti sighting! In celebration of the country’s unique thrills and delights, I wanted to share some fun facts I learned about Nepal while I was there leading a philanthropic photography workshop.

The current year is 2080…

This year, 2080, is particularly significant in the Nepali calendar because it marks the beginning of a new century (21st century) in the Nepal Sambat system. This unique calendar system is based on lunar cycles and has been used in Nepal for millennia. In fact, April 13th is when they celebrate New Year’s Eve!

Nepal has maintained ZERO poaching of its endangered animals, including elephants, rhinos and tigers, for the past 12 years.

Nepal has become the world’s gold standard in the fight against poaching and received international accolades for recording zero poaching of rhinos in 2011, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2019, and 2020. The Nepalese government has ensured local communities benefit financially from the country’s parks and ecotourism. The government gives local communities 50 cents of every tourist dollar, making the wildlife more valuable alive than dead.

Mount Everest actually has two other names, Sagarmatha and Chomolungma.

The Royal Geographic Society pronounced the official name "Mount Everest" in 1865, named after Sir George Everest, the Surveyor General, but he did not want the peak named after him, believing it important to use local names. The Nepali word for Everest is Sagarmatha, meaning “forehead of the sky.” Sherpas (which is actually the name of an ethnic group in Eastern Nepal, not just a word for someone who lugs your gear) call it Chomolungma, meaning “Goddess Mother of the World.”

Pokhara is called the “Gateway to the Himalayas” and the starting point of many of the most famous trekking expeditions, but what will grab your attention is the constant swooping of dozens of colorful paragliders filling the skies above you. It is one of the top paragliding locations worldwide, having all the right ingredients: stable thermals, convenient take-off and landing zones, the safety of a large lake for emergency landings and incredible mountain views. 

I had a total “James Bond experience when I stayed at the Waterfront Hotel there, jumping off a cliff, gliding around for half an hour doing corkscrew tricks surrounded by hawks, then landing right next to the pool of my hotel, where I took off my parachute and went directly to a lounge chair for a cocktail — no big deal!

Nepal is the birthplace of Lord Gautam Buddha, The founder of Buddhism. 

Buddha’s exact birthplace is preserved in Lumbini, Nepal, inside the Maya Devi temple, and because of this, Lumbini in Nepal is the holiest pilgrimage site for Buddhists worldwide.

Boudhanath Stupa is the largest and holiest Tibetan Buddhist temple outside Tibet.

I spent the day with hundreds of monks chanting, playing instruments, wearing ornate headdresses and praying around the stupa’s base. If you are lucky, on certain holy days you can watch the monks elaborately decorate the stupa and participate in the Kora Buddhist prayers by walking clockwise around it, spinning the hundreds of prayer wheels as you go from right to left.

Visit The Hindu City of the Dead.

Death is part of Life at Pashupatinath Temple, The Hindu City of the Dead. This is one of the most sacred Hindu temples dedicated to god Shiva and located on both banks of Bagmati River in Kathmandu. Every year this temple attracts hundreds of elderly followers of Hinduism who seek shelter for the last several weeks of their lives, to meet death, be cremated on the banks of the river, and travel their last journey with the waters of the sacred river Bagmati, which later meets the holy river Ganges. Hinduists from every corner of Nepal and India are arriving here to die or bring their dead.

It is believed that those who die in Pashupatinath Temple are reborn as a human, regardless of their karma. All around the banks of the river you can find brightly painted Sadhus, or holymen who are trying to acquire liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth by meditating and astrologers that can predict the exact day of your death or just read your palm if you prefer not to know. This place is huge, like a city within a city and has been in existence since 400 AD. There is a powerful energy there and at any given time while you are there visiting, you will get the chance to see at least one open air cremation and watch how they prepare the bodies for the cycle of death and rebirth.

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Laura Grier

Laura is a dynamic Adventure Photographer, Photo Anthropologist, Travel Writer, and Social Impact Entrepreneur. With a remarkable journey spanning 87 countries and 7 continents, Laura's lens captures both the breathtaking landscapes and the intricate stories of the people she encounters. As a National Geographic artisan catalog photographer, Huffington Post columnist, and founder of Andeana Hats, Laura fuses her love for photography, travel, and social change, leaving an impact on the world.

From Abstraction to Realism in Ancient Greek Art

If you ever find yourself struggling with Athens’ summer heat, cool off in its museums and discover a whirlwind of art and civilization.

Small statues typical of the Cycladic Culture, which flourished between the fourth and second millennia BC. Taken by Dermot Curtin.

A human face represented only by an angular nose bridge and a semi-oval silhouette. A procession of curvilinear stick figures, lavished with somewhat less detail than bizarrely eight-legged horses, inanimate chariots and abstract designs. A general preference for the symbolic over the literal and the real. Much of the art you’ll find in Greece’s National Archaeological Museum (NAM)is highly abstract; parts of the collection, particularly those of the Cycladic Period, have a distinctly postmodern feel to them. Such works, however, are not the product of the 19th and 20th century revolt against Greco-Roman and Renaissance verisimilitude, long a dominant force in European art. They instead predate the Classical period and its values by hundreds or thousands of years.

Almost all visitors to Athens who can take the heat make the long, slow trek up the Acropolis to see the Parthenon. Many of those will then visit the Acropolis Museum, a relatively new museum home to much of the pride of Greece’s classical heritage, including the portion of the Parthenon Frieze that Thomas Bruce didn’t get around to looting (plaster casts of the originals fill in gaps, labeled with an ignominious “BM” for British Museum). Still popular, but less of a universal attraction, I found the National Archaeological Museum to be the more interesting of Athens’s two great museums dedicated to antiquity. The NAM’s more varied collection allows visitors to chart the development of Greek style over several millennia, seeing works that are stunning in themselves and better understanding of one of the most radical changes in aesthetic values before the modern age.

The original segments and fragments are noticeably grayer than the majority plaster copies. Taken by Dermot Curtin.

Greece’s island territories were its most precocious in terms of art and civilization. The Minoan and aforementioned Cycladic cultures left a remarkable heritage, which stand in marked contrast to later Hellenic society and each other. Cycladic art is most famous for its austere minimalism, especially as expressed in statues such as the two in this article’s introductory photograph. The Minoans took a different approach, painting vivid frescoes which have, in part thanks to a volcanic eruption sometime between 1650 and 1550 BC, survived thousands of years in good condition. Human figures in Minoan art are stylized, but are far from the degree of abstraction found in their Cycladic semi-contemporaries. Many Minoan paintings not saved by volcanic ash were unearthed at the Palace of Knossos, where King Minos of Greek myth was said to have fed young Athenians to the dreaded Minotaur every year in the Heroic Age.

Two Minoan frescoes, originally from Santorini and preserved by its great eruption. Taken by Dermot Curtin.

Although the Minoan civilization flourished on what is now Greek soil, in one respect it was not yet a Hellenic society: language. The Minoans developed their own system of writing, known to history as Linear A, around the 19th century BC. It has never been deciphered, but linguists have been sound out its symbols since its direct descendant, known as Linear B, was cracked in the early 1950’s. Linear B tablets represent the earliest recorded form of the Greek language called Mycenaean Greek, and are generally administrative documents that the elite used to keep track of their resources and labor. Mycenaean tablets from Crete are indirect evidence for the rise of Hellenic culture in insular Greece, recording a nobility that used Greek names and lower orders with older, native Minoan names. The Mycenaean culture originated in mainland Greece, and expanded south and east into what are now the Greek islands. The Minoan language has no confirmed relatives or descendants.

Linear B tablet from not long after the Mycenaean conquest/cultural shift in the 1400s BC. Taken by Dermot Curtin.

Mycenaean Civilization was famous long before its archaeological rediscovery in the late 19th century as the setting of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. Although Homer composed centuries after the Bronze Age Collapse of circa 1200 BC, he knew many details about the earlier period; the blind poet placed Agamemnon, the the most important leader of the Greeks in the Trojan War, on the throne of Mycenae, which modern archaeology has revealed to be the largest city of the age. Many of the most significant finds from the Hellenic Bronze Age are ornately decorated thin gold sheets, which are part of a broader European artistic trend of the same period. I was immediately reminded of similar (albeit less intricate) artifacts from Bronze Age Ireland. Other works, such as the beautiful inlaid dagger below, have no obvious parallel.

Many gold Mycenaean artifacts from the National Archaeological Museum. Taken by Dermot Curtin.

Disk from a Reel, Irish, c. 800 BC. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. CC0.

Gold Dagger from the National Archaeological Museum. Taken by Dermot Curtin.

The Bronze Age Collapse hit many areas hard, and Greece harder than most. Linear B fell out of use around 1200 BC, leaving the Hellenic world without a script until about 200 years later when the Phoenician abjad was modified for the purpose, with vowels added to make it a viable option for the Greek language. Greece had entered its Dark Age, a radical departure from the centralization, trade and literacy of the Mycenaean and Minoan eras. Despite this, literature flourished; Homer and Hesiod composed their epics, laying the foundation for millennia of inspiration and adaptation.

Two Geometric amphorae from the National Archaeological Museum, from an age (900-700 BC) defined by abstract art. Taken by Dermot Curtin.

As civilization began to recover from the Collapse in the tenth century BC, the Geometric style emerged to fill the void left by Mycenaean art. This style was deliberately abstract, characterized by repeating linear patterns on large amphorae. People, when present at all, appear as small stick figures. Mourners dramatically and uniformly put their hands on their heads, their arms bent at sharp angles that would look unnatural on a more realistic human design; such a pose is necessary to convey distress, as the faces are not given enough detail to show any kind of emotion. The meandros, a repeating pattern that would later be a common fringe for other designs, here takes center stage, while the funerary procession is confined to a narrow box in the upper-center of the amphora. There is little to differentiate one person from another, the exceptions being a child, who is clearly smaller than the adults, and the deceased, who lies on his or her back. Geometric style seems to be the product of a culture that did not value the individual human being as a subject for artistic expression.

Marble statue of a youth, from Archaic Greece c. 590-580 BC; you can see the abstract art of the Geometric give way to stylized human forms. Metropolitan Museum of Art. CC0.

The Kroisos Kouros, c. 530 BC. User:Mountain. CC0.

Greece only fully recovered from the Bronze Age Collapse as it transitioned into its Archaic period around the eighth century BC. In this period, as Greek culture built up to its fifth century zenith, the seeds were planted for many of the institutions and conventions that would flourish in the Classical era (beginning 480 BC with the end of the Persian Wars). The Olympic games were founded, dramas began to be staged in Athens and lawgivers like Solon imposed constitutional reforms that would eventually lead to democracy. The visual arts made a dramatic turn, as abstract designs retreated to the background in favor of a strong emphasis on the human form. The most typical art form of the time is the kouros, a strongly stylized nude statue of a male youth. Although sometimes differing in size and detail, all kouroi adhere to the same basic plan, standing up straight with the left foot out front, braided hair and a serene affect. The figure on the right was made about 50 years later than its counterpart to the left, and although clearly the product of more skilled craftsmanship does not deviate from the essence of the older model. 

Statue from the Egyptian Old Kingdom that resembles the Greek Kouros; note the forward left foot. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. CC0.

Although impressive in their own right, such statues are not dissimilar to art produced by Middle Eastern cultures in the Bronze and Iron ages. Initial kouroi designs seem to have been borrowed in part from Egypt during the early part of the Archaic period. In the jubilant aftermath of the Greek victory in the Persian Wars, however, Hellenic artists made an unprecedented turn toward realism that would cement Greece’s place in art history for all time.

Roman copy of Polykleitos’s famous Diadumenos, original circa 420 BC. Taken by Dermot Curtin.

A Greek sailor looks out wistfully on the sea battle where he died, funerary stele. Taken by Dermot Curtin. (melancholy)

Ancient art reached its apogee in the Classical period of the fifth and century BC. This is the era which would come to define Greek civilization, and marks one of high water marks of cultural production the world over. In the visual arts this meant a form of idealized realism, meant to portray natural forms in their best possible state. This involved more than technical skill, as sculptors like Polykleitos incorporated specific mathematical proportions into their work in their drive for perfection. The incredible detail allowed for greater subtlety of design; compare the melancholy of the fallen soldier on the left to the sharp and uniform gestures on the Geometric mourners above. The sculptures look like people you could actually know, except fitter and far better looking.

Geometric amphora. Taken by Dermot Curtin.

Terracotta volute-krater with red figure design, circa 450 BC. Metropolitan Museum of Art. CC0.

The period between 750 and 450 BC saw a revolution in aesthetic values, matched only by the modern rise of modern art in the 19th and 20th centuries. In the Ancient Greek world, however, the shift was in the opposite direction, from the abstract to the concrete. The change in taste was coincided with a dramatic rise in skill, leading to works that still keep many of the world’s art historians and critics occupied. If you ever find yourself in Athens, make sure to visit the National Archaeological Museum to experience the whirlwind for yourself.

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Dermot Curtin

Dermot is copy editor and a contributing writer at CATALYST PLANET. He is a recent graduate of William & Mary, majoring in History and Government, and enjoys learning about the world and conveying his experiences through writing.

Hagia Sophia: Istanbul’s Oldest Building

Having served as a church, mosque and museum, Hagia Sophia represents both religion and history in Istanbul. 

Hagia Sophia. Adli WahidCC BY-SA 3.0.

Built in the 6th Century, Hagia Sophia is the oldest building in Istanbul, Turkey. This ancient structure has been an important spiritual center for both Christians and Muslims, and its history is shown through its architectural features. Here is a deep-dive into the creation of Hagia Sophia, its meaning to different cultures, and how to visit it today.

History

Interior of Hagia Sophia. Wolfgang Guelcker. CC BY 3.0.

Originally named “Megale Ekklesia,” or “Great Church,” Hagia Sophia was built in 360 under Emperor Constantius. After the church was destroyed by riots in 404, it was rebuilt by Emperor Theodosius in 415. During this period, the church received its current name, “Hagia Sophia,” or “Holy Wisdom.” After being burned down during a revolt in 532, the final structure of Hagia Sophia was resurrected under Emperor Justinian I in 537, with some restorations in the 14th century. This version of the church was known as the Cathedral of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, which was a spiritual center of the Eastern Orthodox Church. After the Ottoman Empire took over Constintinople in 1453, Sultan Mehmet II repurposed Hagia Sophia, which served as a mosque until becoming a museum in 1935. In 1985, Hagia Sophia became a UNESCO World Heritage site, giving official recognition its long cherished cultural value. 

Controversy

Greek protest against Turkey. Des Byrne. CC BY 2.0.

In 2020, Hagia Sophia was renamed a mosque under the Turkish government. This decision created controversy between Turkey and other nations, as repurposing it as a mosque draws away from the entirety of the structure’s history and the mutual respect between religions. This also strengthened existing tensions between Turkey and Greece, as Hagia Sophia was once part of the Greek Orthodox Church.

Architecture

Dome

Main dome of Hagia Sophia. Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin. CC BY-SA 4.0.

Following St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, Hagia Sophia is home to the second largest pendentive dome in the world. The main dome of the structure has a diameter of 107 feet and is supported by 4 pendentives, which are large triangular arches that meet in the middle of a structure. These structures are one of the earliestlarge pendentives to ever be made. There are also two semi-domes on each side of the main one, supported by columns.

Columns

Columns in Hagia Sophia. Serafita. CC BY-SA 4.0.

Hagia Sophia has 140 columns, all from different parts of the world. For example, the purple columns supporting the semi-domes of the structure originated in Egypt. There are also green columns from the Artemis Temple in Ephesus, an ancient Greek city. The most prominent columns are made of Verde Antique stone, which was mined from quarries in the city of Larissa, Greece during the Byzantine empire. These columns are 34 feet tall, and its material was used frequently during the 6th century.

Mosaics

Mosaic of the Virgin Mary and Jesus. World History Encyclopaedia. CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

Originally, Hagia Sophia displayed many Christian mosaics, but these images were covered during the Ottoman Empire. Some of these mosaics depict angels and praise Jesus and the Virgin Mary, while others take the form of emperors such as Justinian and Constantine. One of the most iconic mosaics shows the Virgin Mary holding baby Jesus, and this image remains uncovered today. Created in the 860s, this is the oldest mosaic in Hagia Sophia.

How to Visit

People visiting Hagia Sophia. Magnus Manske. CC BY 2.0.

Though it has reverted to a mosque, Hagia Sophia is still open to the public. Visitors are required to remove their shoes before walking its carpets. Hagia Sophia is open to the public every day of the week, but closes to non-worshipping visitors during prayer hours. Guided tours of Hagia Sophia are also offered through different websites, usually for a fee.

Click here for more Hagia Sophia visitation guidelines.

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Alexandra Copeland

Alexandra is a student at The College of New Jersey studying psychology and journalism. She is a lover of coffee, dancing, and visiting new places. Being raised with her Greek culture has inspired her interest in cultural customs around the world. She is a passionate writer and hopes that her work will make an impact in the future.