Aboriginal Australians: Ancient Roots and Modern Struggles

Centuries after British Settlement and mass destruction of their culture, Aboriginal Australians continue to be discriminated against by the Australian government. 

Aboriginal Men in 2011. Steve Evans. CC BY 2.0

Aboriginal Australians have experienced systemic disadvantages throughout Australia’s history. Noted as one of the oldest Indigenous communities living outside of Africa, Aboriginal Australians led an advanced lifestyle in precolonial times. According to an article in The Conversation, Indigenous Australians are noted for “establishing complex religions, burying their dead with elaborate rituals, engaging in long-distance trade, making jewelry, and producing magnificent works of art” when Europe was still home to Neanderthals. 

The ancestors of Indigenous Australians migrated to the continent from Southeast Asian countries like Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia and the Philippines. Numerous studies investigating the Indigenous group conclude that Aborigines have lived in Australia for approximately 65,000 years. Across the country, Aborigines speak more than 250 distinct languages. There are two classifications of Indigenous people in Australia—the Aboriginal peoples and the Torres Strait Islanders. Aboriginal Australians are those whose ancestors lived in mainland Australia before the arrival of European colonists, whileTorres Strait Islanders have traditionally lived in an archipelago between the continent and Papua New Guinea to the north. 

Over time, Australia’s Aboriginal presence has fallen to just 3% of the national population due to colonization and legal restrictions. When British Settlement began in 1788, 750,000 to 1.25 million Aboriginal Australians were living in the country at the time. The British brought epidemics, land seizures, and violent conflict, subjecting most Aboriginal Australians to poverty and massacres. According to National Geographic, “[t]hough the term ‘genocide’ remains controversial, people related to the continent’s first inhabitants are widely considered to have been wiped out through violence.” 

From 1910 to 1970, the Australian government created assimilation policies for Aboriginal Australian children, resulting in the Stolen Generations. Successive administrations took Indigenous children away from their families and put them into adoptive families or institutions, forbidding them from speaking their native languages or even keeping their original names.

Today’s Aborigines still face various hurdles as a result of settlement, one being accessible maternal healthcare.  Edie, an Aboriginal woman interviewed by BBC, explains her recent involvement with a movement called Birthing on Country following the birth of her fourth child and observations about the dearth in Indigenous mother healthcare in Australia. Her colleague and co-director of the Molly Wardahuha Research Centre Yvette Roe explains that the organization is, “a concept with key elements: when we talk about ‘Country,’ we’re talking about ancestral connection to the country where we’re born. We’re talking about 60,000 years of connection to the land and sky.” Lack of proper maternal care for Indigenous mothers results in them being three times more likely to die during childbirth than non-Indigenous mothers, and their babies almost twice as likely to die in the first year. The maternal health crisis reflects general disparities that exist for Australia’s Indigenous population. Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander people face high levels of discrimination, unemployment, poor housing and poor education compared to their counterparts. Concentration in remote locations has also limited access to life-saving services.

Additionally, Aboriginals continue to fight for general recognition and restitution by the Australian government. As the only country in the Commonwealth of Nations country to not make a treaty with its Indigenous population, Australia's Parliament attempted to recognise Aboriginals in its Constitution and create an Indigenous advisory board that would weigh in on national, relevant issues along with Parliament. In the fall of 2023, Australia rejected the referendum. While most of the Indigenous voters were in favor of the referendum, 60% of Australian voters said no. The Aboriginal community took a week of silence and reflection following the decision. In the Queensland Parliament, the "Path to Treaty Act 2023" was legislated with an 88 out of 92 member majority. Truth and Treaty Queensland described it as a, “Historic piece of legislation … the Act provides the legislative framework for the Truth-telling and Healing Inquiry and the First Nations Treaty Institute to be established.”

Since the late 1700’s,  Aboriginal Australians have struggled at the hands of foreign settlers. Whether it is maternal healthcare or incorporation into Australia’s Constitution, their rights and needs have been and continue to be disregarded in numerous ways across the country. 

TO GET INVOLVED

Australians are encouraged to get involved with their local Aboriginal communities by attending community events and participating in local Aboriginal tours. Residents can also explore local Aboriginal Land Councils to learn about what actions are currently being taken in their communities. Creativespirits.info explains what land councils do to help Indigenous Australians and has a comprehensive list of Aboriginal land councils in Australia. Activist groups such as Australians for Native Title and Reconciliation (ANTaR) and Stop the Intervention Collective Sydney (STICS) are actively working to help remediate the injustices Aboriginals are facing across Australia.

Aanya Panyadahundi

Aanya is a student at the University of Michigan studying sociology and journalism on a pre-law path. She loves to travel the world whenever she can, always eager to learn more about the different cultures and societies around her. In her free time, she likes to play the violin, ski, and listen to podcasts.

Will Bougainville Become the World’s Newest Country?

98% of the Bougainville population voted for independence from Papua New Guinea in 2019, but the quest for nationhood remains uncertain.

A view of Bougainville. Jeremy Weate. CC BY 2.0.

In 2019, Bougainville, an island that is politically part of Papua New Guinea (PNG) but culturally and linguistically separate, voted overwhelmingly for independence. Around 98% of the population voted to leave PNG to form their own country. With such a large majority supporting independence, the government of PNG cannot ignore the demands of Bougainville, and negotiations  are currently underway to devise a peaceful path to independence that satisfies both parties involved.

Located around 160 kilometers from the island of New Ireland and 1,000 kilometers from Port Moresby, the capital of PNG on the island of New Guinea, Bougainville is geographically part of the Solomon island chain. Due to its remote location from the rest of PNG, it has a unique history. A part of the German Empire until 1946, PNG was then transferred to Australian administration. When Australia granted independence to PNG in 1975, Bougainville was to be included in the new country, against the protests of the people there.

The people of Bougainville made several attempts at independence over the years, including in 1975. In the late 1980s, the region got plunged into a civil war due to the disagreements over the operation of the Panguna mine, one of the largest and most profitable mines in the world. To the residents of Bougainville, the mine, which was supported by the PNG government, represented another imperial imposition to their land. As part of the peace settlement that established Bougainville as an autonomous region in 2001, the residents of Bougainville were to be entitled to an independence referendum every 10 to 15 years. That first referendum happened in 2019, which resulted in overwhelming support for independence.

The location of Bougainville relative to the rest of PNG. Mr Accountable. CC BY-SA 3.0.

The next steps are uncertain. It is not feasible for any entity to gain complete independence overnight so there will be a transition period before Bougainville becomes a fully sovereign country. The agreement between Bougainville and the rest of PNG stipulates that independence shall be attained no later than 2027. Both parties are now trying to figure out the best way forward.

PNG is generally reluctant to grant independence to Bougainville, as their prime minister James Marape is worried that giving independence to Bougainville will set a precedent for other secessionist parts of the country. He insists that the parliament of PNG must approve independence. The government of PNG also points out that the referendum is non-binding.

The Bougainville side, however, says that the role of the parliament is only to ratify the actual results of the referendum or the outcome of the post-ratification consultations. After over a year of negotiations, both parties, in 2021, agreed to have a political settlement “no earlier than 2025 and no later than 2027.” Most governmental powers will also be transferred to Bougainville by 2023, with the rest to follow by 2027.

However, challenges remain. Today, Bougainville has a GDP per capita of $1,100, which is around the same level as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Niger and Somalia, all of whom face notable challenges in poverty, health and political stability. It remains to be seen whether Bougainville will be able to secure recognition by other nations, as well as become a member of the United Nations, usually considered one of the benchmarks of independence. Ensuring a peaceful transition that results in a stable government that does not depend on foreign aid will be essential in the future success of Bougainville. While not there yet, the world could welcome a new country by 2027.

Bryan Fok

Bryan is currently a History and Global Affairs major at the University of Notre Dame. He aims to apply the notion of Integral Human Development as a framework for analyzing global issues. He enjoys hiking and visiting national parks.

The Unique Landscapes of New Zealand's Milford Sounds

Milford Sound located in Fiordland National Park’s diverse landscape has been preserved for years, drawing travelers from around the world.

Milford Sound is often considered a destination for immersing oneself in nature. Located on the west coast of the southern island, the sound is situated in New Zealand’s Fiordland National Park. A sound, by definition, is a valley filled with seawater. Milfrorf Sound, however, is formed from glacial water, which technically makes it a fiord. Milford Sound has attracted visitors for centuries, but the history of the sound dates back more than 1,000 years. 

The Māori first discovered the fiord, using the land for fishing, hunting and mining pounamu (green jade). According to Māori legend, the sound was carved by Atua, a godly figure who split the cliffs surrounding the sound. The Māori named Milfrod Sound Piopiotahi in refrence to a native bird. A Māori tells the story of a piopio bird flying over the sound after the legendary figure Maui died while pursuing immortality.

In 1877, a man from Scotland settled in Milford Sound, opening the first hotel with his wife. Visitors in the late 19th century and early 20th century were only able to reach the sound through a walking path, Milford Track. In 1954, a tunnel was drilled through the rock surrounding the sound, bringing new road access. With the building of the road, Milford Sound became much more accessible to travelers and has drawn large numbers of visitors from around the world. 

Milford Track is still available to explore today within the boundaries of the national park. The path is over 30 miles long and typically takes four to five days to complete. Each night, hikers can stay at a hut along the route before continuing the next day. The trail starts at the head of Lake Te Anau and ends a short boat ride away from Milford Sound. There are also many different day-hikes that visitors can complete to see the park as well as a variety of boat tours. The area experiences heavy rainfall year round, which provides the lush environment and abundance of waterfalls. Kayaking is also popular among visitors, as it allows people to explore the water in an eco-friendly way. 

One of the iconic sites of Milford Sound is the Mitre Peak. The mountain sharply rises up from the water, reaching a height of more than 5,000 feet. Additionally, the area is well known for its waterfalls. Lady Bowen Falls, the tallest permanent waterfall in the park, feeds directly into the fiord. Accessible by boat and a short hike, the falls are another important landmark in Milford Sound.

Milford Sound is not just known for its beautiful scenery and nature, but is an important aspect of New Zealand's heritage. The national park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site recognized for its unique landscapes and wildlife. The area is protected by several laws, including the Conservation Act of 1987, to ensure that the area will continue to prosper.

Dana Flynn

Dana is a recent graduate from Tufts University with a degree in English. While at Tufts she enjoyed working on a campus literary magazine and reading as much as possible. Originally from the Pacific Northwest, she loves to explore and learn new things.

Slope Point and Champagne Pool: Exploring New Zealand’s Wild Wonders

Sometimes nature is simple: vibrant sunsets, rays of warming moonlight or bouncing ocean waves. Other times, however, nature shocks and stuns. New Zealand houses two such examples: the odd site of Slope Point and the equally eerie Champagne Pool.

Slope Point with sheep. Seabird NZ. CC BY-ND 2.0. 

Slope Point

Perhaps most descriptions of the wonders of wind speak of a gentle breeze or freshly blowing air. On the southernmost tip of New Zealand’s South Island, the winds are instead far from calm; the violently whipping winds gave one area the name “Slope Point.” Situated along a steep cliff at the island’s southern edge, Slope Point is an ideal spot for those mystified by science. The ocean winds are violent and unrelenting to the area’s trees. The wind provides a scary picture of nature’s true power, blowing away anything that may come in its path. The location of Slope Point forces the trees to become the first victims of the winds. As a result, the tall trees are bent at an odd angle, making them seem as if they were purposely posed. Although few people live in the area, local farmers planted the trees to provide shelter from the wind for their herds of sheep. 

Photographs of the area offer profound inspiration for artists: the odd trees bend against a gray background striped with warm rays of sun. Although the area hosts an eerie feel, it is surely one underlined with the beauty of Mother Nature’s masterful hand. 

Champagne Pool

Boiling Champagne Pool. t3rmin4t0r. CC BY 2.0. 

Far north of Slope Point lies the mystical Champagne Pool on New Zealand’s North Island. Although an uncanny site, Champagne Pool is only one of many geothermal spots peppering the area around the city of Rotorua. The surrounding area, called Wai-O-Tapu, is known for its geothermal sites carved throughout the landscape. The strips of active volcanic sites and geothermal pools have created an admittedly scary yet magnificent look into what lies just beneath our feet. 

Champagne Pool is a captivating hot spring that stretches over 200 feet and is about equally as deep. A hydrothermal eruption caused this crater, which boils at over 160 degrees Fahrenheit, to form about 900 years ago. The hot spring earned its name from the presence of carbon dioxide that causes it to bubble like Champagne. Although seemingly uninhabitable, the hot spring teems with a rich microbial ecosystem. Additionally, striking photos of the site capture the vibrancy of the pool’s outer rim. Its neon orange strip is caused by antimony deposits that harden on the cooled rim of the pool. The surrounding grounds are equally rich in minerals; gold, mercury and silver are found in nearby rock beds. 

Whether one is an artist, a scientist or an adventurous visitor, both Slope Point and Champagne Pool stand as equally inspiring trips. 

Ella Nguyen

Ella is an undergraduate student at Vassar College pursuing a degree in Hispanic Studies. She wants to assist in the field of immigration law and hopes to utilize Spanish in her future projects. In her free time she enjoys cooking, writing poetry, and learning about cosmetics.

Aotearoa: Reclaiming Maori Language and Identity in New Zealand 

Compared to Indigenous groups around the world, the Maori in New Zealand enjoy more agency because of the Treaty of Waitangi, a founding document that recognizes Maori ownership of land and their subsequent autonomy in the country’s government. However, some feel that more can be done to create a bicultural and celebratory society—one that puts the Maori language at the forefront. 

A performance of the haka, a traditional Maori dance. Matthieu Aubry. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

New Zealand is an island country known for its scenic views, its native kiwi bird and its iconic role as the fictional Middle Earth. The country, named Aotearoa (meaning “long white cloud”) in the Maori language, is also steeped in rich history and culture.

Before European settlement, New Zealand was home to the Maori, one of the region’s many Polynesian ethnic groups. According to their oral histories, the Maori first voyaged from present-day Tahiti. They arrived and began inhabiting Aotearoa as early as 1300 A.D. Once settled, the Maori formed tribal societies. Their culture revolves around respect for the natural environment. The Maori also possess elements of a warrior culture—they craft unique performative arts such as the haka, a war dance turned into a ceremonial celebration.

Although the first Europeans—Dutch navigators—made contact with the Maori in 1642, the Maori way of life was not significantly impacted until the late 1700s. With the arrival of British Capt. James Cook, the scramble for New Zealand ensued. As nearby French voyagers and ungoverned sealers and whalers reaped profits from the islands’ natural resources, the British moved to make New Zealand a colony in 1840.

Reconstruction of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. Archives New Zealand. CC BY 2.0

In that same year, the Treaty of Waitangi was created. This artifact is not only recognized as a founding document but also as one that acknowledges Maori rights to the land. Despite its contentious nature, the Treaty of Waitangi is still considered a key success for the treatment of Indigenous people in New Zealand. In countries like Canada and Australia, Indigenous groups suffer a lower quality of life and enjoy less autonomy than their counterparts in New Zealand. These disparities can be traced back to the absence of a document acknowledging Indigenous people’s land rights. 

Although the status of the Maori in New Zealand may be considered a model for Indigenous treatment across the globe, there are still discrepancies that prevent them from fully embracing their dual identities. Though Maori is considered one of the national languages and has been celebrated every September since 1975, a national study found that only 148,000 people in New Zealand can hold a conversation in it.

In a piece for The Guardian, Leigh-Marama McLachlan explains her rejection of Maori culture to sustain success in New Zealand. She writes, “Back then, almost no one in my family spoke [Maori]. My grandmother was like so many Maori of that generation who were led to believe that our language would be of no use to their children.” Although McLachlan possesses some rudimentary Maori, she laments the overwhelmingly monolingual sentiment of the country.

The personal rejection of Maori culture can be traced back to the early stages of New Zealand’s modernization. In a 2015 study, Maori education professors Lesley Rameka and Kura Paul-Burke found that education for children dismissed the value of Maori. Textbooks failed to frame Maori history in a positive light, rendering the culture and language as “unintellectual, trivial and strange.”

A Maori carving. Bernard Spragg.

Since the last Maori Language Week in September, some feel that it is time to restore places to their rightful Maori names. Since the protests against racial injustice in the United States, policymakers and stakeholders were forced to reexamine New Zealand’s racist past of colonialism and disenfranchisement. With an overall renewed interest in Maori rights and treatment, several telecommunications firms in the country have already changed their names to include “Aotearoa.”

Rhiannon Koh

Rhiannon earned her B.A. in Urban Studies & Planning from UC San Diego. Her honors thesis was a speculative fiction piece exploring the aspects of surveillance technology, climate change, and the future of urbanized humanity. She is committed to expanding the stories we tell.

Locked Up: Unmasking Australia’s Aboriginal Youth Prison Crisis

The Aboriginal people have been severely marginalized by Australia’s government, but among the most impacted are the group’s children.

A young Aboriginal girl. mingzhuxia. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

Indigenous people make up approximately 3% of Australia’s overall population and are considered the country’s most disadvantaged group. It is believed that the Aboriginal people lived in Australia for over 47,000 years prior to European colonization. Even today, the Aboriginal people continue to suffer some of the consequences of violent colonization such as low literacy rates, low life expectancy and a high unemployment rate.

Aboriginal children in particular are 30 times more likely to be stopped and prosecuted than other Australian youths. This reveals a pattern of racial profiling and stereotyping that has been called out by protests affiliating with the U.S.’s Black Lives Matter movement. 

Progress was made in 2018, when police in Western Australia apologized for practicing “forceful removal,” the separation of Indigenous children from their families. Forceful removal was popular throughout the late 19th century and was legal until 1969. Many refer to those impacted by forceful removal as the “Stolen Generation.” 

Since May 26, 1998, Australians have observed “National Sorry Day” as a way to apologize to the Aboriginal people for the harmful practice. It is a nationwide campaign committed to paying homage to affected groups while teaching youth of Australia’s harmful past actions. In 2008, former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd made a proposal in front of Parliament to help bridge the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people. 

Australia’s National Sorry Day in 2015. butupa. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Yet, the gap between the Aboriginal community and other Australians remains as wide as ever. In February, the police of New South Wales revealed details about the Suspect Targeting Management Plan, which is intended to prevent future crimes by targeting likely or repeat offenders. Reports from 2016 to 2018 show that up to 72% of targeted children were likely from Indigenous descent. The youngest child identified was 9 years old. 

The minimum age of criminal responsibility in Australia is one of the lowest in the world, allowing children as young as 10 to be sentenced to jail. Additionally, Aboriginal children are 17 times  more likely to be jailed than non-Indigenous youth. Statistics from Western Australia say that 60 to 70% of children currently being held in the state’s detention centers are of an Aboriginal background. 

As of now, very little research proves that locking up children reduces criminal activity in the future. In fact, youth already in the criminal justice system are far more likely to be repeat offenders, challenging the original intent of New South Wales’ Suspect Target Management Plan. 

There is a push by lawyers and advocacy groups to raise the age of criminal responsibility in Australia to at least 14. Others believe that an alternative is to provide better health care and other social services in an attempt to elevate Aboriginal children’s socioeconomic standing. The end goal would be to improve their overall quality of life, allowing for better employment opportunities and an end to the societal obstacles currently facing the group.

Eva Ashbaugh

Eva is a Political Science and Gender, Sexuality, and Women's Studies double major at the University of Pittsburgh. As a political science major concentrating on International Relations, she is passionate about human rights, foreign policy, and fighting for equality. She hopes to one day travel and help educate people to make the world a better place.