An Explorer’s Guide to Visiting Edinburgh

From hiking up a volcano to ancient stone castles, a travel writer discovers the natural beauty and rich history of the Scottish capital

A view of Edinburgh’s skyline from Calton Hill. Mike McBey. CC BY 2.0.

Named TimeOut magazine’s best city in the world in 2022, Edinburgh is the perfect destination for those looking to experience the natural beauty and history of Scotland. Before visiting for myself, I knew very little about the city past its prestigious university, but I soon discovered how much more the city has to offer than the Loch Ness tours and Fringe Festival performances that initially came to mind. Edinburgh is located on the southeast coast of Scotland, just a 10 minute drive away from the North Sea. An ancient volcano which last erupted around 340 million years ago is responsible for the many volcanic rock formations surrounding the capital, one of which is now home to the city’s Old Town district.

Victoria Street is said to have been the inspiration for Diagon Alley in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter book series. Ralf Steinberger. CC BY 2.0.

Bird’s eye view shots of Edinburgh are often marked by a scattering of towering gothic constructions, but exploring the labyrinth of the Old Town was at the top of my list. In order to protect and preserve its impressive display of traditional British reformation-era buildings and rambling cobblestone streets, Edinburgh’s Old Town became a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1995. It stands in contrast to the city’s New Town in the north, which was constructed entirely in the Georgian style between the 1760s and the 1830s. The Old Town’s beautiful spread of architecture houses museums, galleries, ancient churches and shops, with Victoria Street being a favorite of mine because of its historic stone arches and colorful storefronts.

Exploring the area by foot is a must — I discovered countless hidden alleyways tucked between shops that led to smaller churches and hidden cloisters that were built hundreds of years ago. Spreading throughout the district, countless pubs make it a favorite among those looking to get a taste of Scotland’s national drink: whisky. Those under the age of 18, however, can happily enjoy the unofficial national drink of Irn Bru, a non-alcoholic soft drink first brewed according to a secret recipe back in 1901.

Edinburgh Castle sits at the very top of Castle Hill and looks out over the city from the West. Kim Traynor. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Perched on a volcanic rock outcrop sits Edinburgh Castle, with its ancient stone towers and turrets looking down over the Old Town. Fortunately, I booked tickets ahead of time and got to pass the huge crowds at the entrance, and visiting around midday when most people are stopping for lunch also allowed for a much more private exploration of the castle grounds. Depending on the part in question, sections of the castle date back to the 12th century, with newer additions being constructed by various monarchs over the next few centuries. I was able to get up close and personal with the Scottish Crown Jewels, and witnessed the daily firing of a cannon at 1 pm before touring the National War Museum, all set against the backdrop of Edinburgh’s eclectic skyline and the shoreline in the distance.

Holyrood Palace sits at the end of the Royal Mile and is the official Scottish residence of the British Monarch. Adam Fagen. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Edinburgh’s other royal residence sits at the base of the ancient volcano responsible for the city’s unique geography. Still in use by the royal family today, Holyrood Palace was originally built by King James IV in 1503 upon his marriage into the British Monarchy. Very little remains of the original buildings as subsequent royals amended and added to the palace during their reigns. While generally open to the public year round barring royal visits to the Scottish capital, I chose to enjoy the palace’s facade from its visitor’s cafe, where a beautiful view of the Scottish Parliament building across the road can be seen. A short walk to the palace’s rear brought me to the entrance to a large park, which used to be part of the palace grounds but is now available for public use as well.

A view of Edinburgh from the top of Arthur’s Seat. Euan Marley. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Surrounding the palace is Holyrood Park, home to the rocky spires of the Salisbury Crags and Arthur’s Seat, the remains of a now-dormant volcano. I made sure to familiarize myself with the various hiking trails to the volcano’s summit as signage within the actual park was very limited. Some of these routes were specifically for those looking to visit with their bikes, while others allowed for a much more leisurely stroll through the park’s meadows. The park also has a rich history: en route to the top of the 251 meter tall (roughly 823 feet) mountain lies the ruins of a medieval chapel and agricultural terraces from the Bronze Age. I came upon these sites by accident as they are not located along the main routes but are still easily accessible. Reaching the summit took just over half an hour, and the incredible 360 degree views of Edinburgh, and the surrounding towns were well worth the climb. A word of warning: despite visiting on a relatively warm and sunny day in the middle of the summer, the winds at the summit were still incredibly strong and should not be underestimated!

The National Monument is located at the top of Calton Hill. Culture Map. CC BY-NC 2.0.

For those looking for picturesque views of Edinburgh’s skyline without an hour long hike, Calton Hill is a perfect alternative. Also known as “Edinburgh’s Acropolis”, the 10 minute walk along a paved road to the top was significantly easier than the climb up Arthur’s Seat. Once at the top, I discovered the Collective Gallery, a contemporary art center that cycles through exhibits by local Scottish artists, as well as a luxury boutique restaurant with stunning views of the city. Also on the hill are the National and Nelson Monuments, the former being dedicated to Scottish soldiers who perished in the Napoleonic Wars. The monument was intended to be an exact replica of the Parthenon down to the exact dimensions of each block of stone. Unfortunately, the monument was only half finished when work stopped in 1829 and was never completed, though the part that stands today still forms an impressive and iconic part of Edinburgh’s skyline.

Nelson’s Monument stands in front of the Edinburgh skyline as seen from the top of Calton Hill. Andrew Colin. CC BY 2.0.

More than anything, I was surprised by how well Edinburgh was able to marry its incredible history with modern luxuries and infrastructure. It is a city of contrasts tucked in between rocky volcanic hills and the vast North sea, with Michelin-starred restaurants housed in old Georgian townhouses, and traditional tartan sold alongside extravagant cashmere. You can just as easily enjoy a plate of traditional haggis in an ultra-modern gastropub as you can take in a Shakespeare play in the newly renovated King’s Theater Dome. My visit, while only 3 days long, was jam packed with experiences unique to Edinburgh’s distinctive geography, history and culture. There is truly something to interest everyone and more, if you are willing to go off the beaten track and venture down an intriguing cobblestone alleyway or two.

Tanaya Vohra

Tanaya is an undergraduate student pursuing a major in Public Health at the University of Chicago. She's lived in Asia, Europe and North America and wants to share her love of travel and exploring new cultures through her writing.

7 Sites of Mexico City’s Architectural Diversity, from Baroque to Brutalist

Mexico City is a flourishing metropolis with a plethora of historic and modernist architectural sites. Here are a few attractions scattered around the city.

A street at the center of Mexico City. Flickr user Franx’. CC BY-NC 2.0.

A Gothic cathedral sits next to a glassy business building. Brick houses with arabesque detailing overlook the noisy streets full of men in suits and street food vendors. Mexico City is growing every year; its multiplicity of neighborhoods hosts a variety of architectural styles and people from all over the globe. Often regarded as an oasis of modernity in the entirety of Latin America, this urban center has been labeled the “next Paris'' or as a new version of New York. Given its history of colonialism and its willful modernization under Porfirio Diaz, Mexico City’s compilation of architecture is oftentimes representative of its past and present. Here’s a cursory glance at a few of Mexico City’s sites of modernization, and the contradictions at play in these structures. 

The Central Library of the National Autonomous University on a gloomy day. Mark Hogan. CC BY-SA 2.0.

1. Central Library of the National Autonomous University

Juan O’Gorman’s Central Library of the National Autonomous University (UNAM) is a spectacle to behold. This behemoth holds the qualities of international modernist architecture: its 14-story frame sits above a glassy ground floor which looks over a neatly gridded yard. Yet, O’Gorman’s building doesn’t possess the stoicism of standard midcentury modern architecture; its distinctively Mexican-themed mural makes the building a historic storybook. Like a visual epic, the “Historical Representation of Culture” mural includes the expansive timeline of pre-conquest Mexico, the Spanish conquest, Mexican modernization and Mexico’s future. One can spot mosaics of the beginnings of Tenochtitlan, and the clash between pre-Hispanic Mexico and vehicles of Spanish colonialism. O’Gorman believed his mosaics of these cultural signifiers would make the library “different from the rest of the buildings within University City” by giving it a distinctly “Mexican character.” 

A corner of the exterior of Casa Luis Barragan. Forgemind Archimedia. CC BY 2.0.

2. Casa Luis Barragan

Casa Luis Barragan, which was built in 1948, looks as if it were suspended in time and space: colorful red walls jut into the placid blue sky, although they are immobile in detail and structure. Luis Barragan is a world-renowned architect whose eccentric architectural style can be recognized in his buildings’ solid colors, geometric shapes and sparsity of details. This vibrant house is a foil of O’Gorman’s direct homage to Mexico as a nation; it highlights formalist qualities over political values, which Barragan considered secondary to his architecture. Barragan is an expert at manipulating elements of nature. The play of shadows within the structure itself and the use of greenery turns an otherwise intimidating monument into a livable habitat. Although countless travel journals have attached Mexican modernist themes to Barragan’s home, it resists the supposed markers of “Mexican” aesthetics and remains a private site of great accomplishment.

Thousands visit the Basilica de Guadalupe daily. Alex Marduk. CC BY 2.0.

3. Basilica de Guadalupe 

Pedro Ramirez Vazquez’s seminal work, the Basilica de Guadalupe, is a sacred destination for thousands of Catholics around the world. The area it sits on, Tepeyac, was originally a place where Aztecs worshipped Tonantzin, or “the divine mother.” As a result of the suppression of Aztec religions during Spanish occupation, the Basilica de Guadalupe was built for Our Lady of Guadalupe who was said to have appeared before St. Juan Diego. The original colonial basilica was severely damaged in 1921 in a bomb attack, but Vazquez’s new Basilica de Guadalupe renovated the sacred site. This site was just one of Vazquez’s projects dedicated to industrializing Mexico, as shown in its modernist disk shape and the sheer mass of its structure.

Monumento a la Revolucion sitting at the city center. Ismael Villafranco. CC BY 2.0.

4. Monumento a la Revolucion

Located in the Cuauhtemoc borough of Mexico City, Monumento a la Revolucion is a stately memorial which celebrates the Mexican Revolution of 1910. Mirroring many of the United States’ federal buildings in Washington, the monument’s perfectly symmetrical Roman dome is fortified by brick pillars which meet at the four corners of the structure. Carlos Obregon Santacilia continued the project after it had been abandoned by both the state and the French architect they commissioned for the building, Emile Benard. Oliverio Martinez’s smooth sculptural representations of independence, reform, agrarian laws and labor laws protect the mausoleum on its four corners. In this marriage of neoclassical elements and Mexican nationalism, the Mexican government actively constructs its origin story via the conventions of Roman and French architecture.

Close-up shot of Martinez’s sculpture on Monumento a la Revolucion. Flickr user tchelseat. CC BY-NC 2.0.

A view of the facade of La Santisima Church. Wikimedia user Protoplasmakid. CC BY-SA 3.0.

5. La Santisima Church

La Santisima Church is covered in the Spanish churrigueresque style, which is the Baroque style that was dominant in Spain during the 18th century. Its facades are adorned with ornate carvings of the apostles, angels, Jesus and Mary placed in between its many columns. Although it appears relatively normal in a city full of extravagant churches, the distinctive religious iconography on its exterior deems La Santisima Church worthy of close attention.

Museo Soumaya shines brightly on sunny days. Flickr user Dan. CC BY 2.0.

6. Museo Soumaya

No piece of architecture screams “contemporary” like the Museo Soumaya. Museo Soumaya, which houses thousands of sculptures and paintings from pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica up to European impressionist works, is a piece of art itself. The Plaza Carso building in particular is an intriguing malformed shape dressed in millions of aluminum hexagons. Taking inspiration from Frank Lloyd Wright’s Guggenheim in New York, Fernando Romero designed the Plaza Carso as an enigma: the concept behind the work is intentionally vague, and the usefulness of its parabolic shape questionable. 

Front view of Museo Anahuacalli. Javier Castañón. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

7. Museo Anahuacalli

Although Diego Rivera is widely known for his painted murals, his exploration of three-dimensional design is just as noteworthy. Rivera’s Museo Anahuacalli was made of his own accord; Rivera wanted a space for his collection of over 50,000 relics of pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica. The style of the building is an amalgam of various Mesoamerican styles, taking inspiration from Teotihuacan and the temples of the Mayans and Aztecs. The exterior of the museum has the symmetry of neoclassical architecture, while its interior is heavily influenced by the Aztec pyramid. 

Many scholars speculate that the development of uniquely “Mexican” architecture, seen through Mexico City’s plethora of sites, stems from a desire for national representation. Mexico City’s postcolonial realities are found in its very infrastructure: one cannot ignore the presence of Catholicism, the reminders of a pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica, and the complications of deliberate industrialization. Juan O’Gorman’s library attempts to artfully marry the past, present and future. Casa Barragan is the work of a maverick who resists the narrative of a national architecture. The grandiose Basilica de Guadalupe is holy ground for millions of Catholics, yet it strays from the Gothic style of typical European cathedrals. 

The sheer amount of voices and styles in this sprawling metropolis is telling of its complicated relationship with modernization. There is no shortage of historic, formal, religious and artistic values in each of Mexico City’s buildings. 

Heather Lim

Heather recently earned her B.A. in Literatures in English from University of California, San Diego. She was editor of the Arts and Culture section of The Triton, a student-run newspaper. She plans on working in art criticism, which combines her love of visual art with her passion for journalism.  

Islamic Architecture in Spain 

While many can forget that Arab and North African Muslims controlled parts of Spain for almost 800 years, longstanding Spanish architecture is a testament to the Muslim reign. Arabesque patterns, Islamic motifs and sandy colors have been preserved in some of Andalusia’s most famous palaces and fortresses. 

Arab and North African Muslims conquered the Iberian Peninsula in the eighth  century. Ruling for almost 800 years in Al-Andalus (currently Andalusia), Muslims inevitably left traces of their presence in the region. Everything from language and religion to architecture and art was adopted by Spain during the Muslim reign. Around 4,000 Spanish words which are still in use today originated from Arabic. The majority of these words are nouns related to food, animals, nature and science. For example, the Spanish word for “olive” is “aceituna” and is derived from the Arabic word “zaytünah.”

While aspects of the Arabic language can be found in Spanish, Islamic architecture is the true evidence of the Arab and North African Muslim reign in Spain. Certain sites in modern-day Andalusia make you feel like you’re in Morocco or Syria. Today, Islamic architecture is most prevalent in Cordoba, Seville and Granada—Spanish cities in Andalusia—with their palaces and holy sites. 

 Cordoba 

Desert colored walls in the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Waqqas Akhtar. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. 

Cordoba was the capital of Al-Andalus when it was first conquered in 711 A.D. The Great Mosque of Cordoba is a testament to the Arabic and Islamic influence in the city. Elaborate building programs and agricultural projects were sponsored by Prince Abd al-Rahman I from Damascus, Syria. The prince imported plants from Damascus, some of which still stand in the yard of the Mosque of Cordoba today. 

Previously operating as a mosque and church at different points in history, the captivating structure includes a hypostyle prayer hall, a beautiful courtyard with an extravagant fountain, a colorful orange grove, a walkway circling the courtyard and a minaret which is now a bell tower. Islamic calligraphy and verses from religious scriptures fill the sandy, red and white colored columns. Geometric shapes dominate the structure—in everything from design to entryways. One major Islamic motif that is evident in this structure is the horseshoe shaped “mihrab.” The mihrab identifies the wall that faces Mecca—Islam’s holiest city that features the home of God, the Kaa’ba—and indicates which direction to face while praying. The mihrab is decorated in gold and brown detailing. Above the mihrab sits a mesmerizing dome filled with pointed gold arches and radial patterns fill the ceiling. 

The mihrab, Great Mosque of Cordoba. Kevin Poh. CC BY 2.0.

The dome above the mihrab in the Great Mosque of Cordoba. mitopencourseware. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Seville 

The Royal Alcazar in Seville is one of the world’s oldest palaces that is still in use today. This palace has been awarded status as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Alcazar was first built in the 11th century when the Arabs moved in and sought to create a secure, residential fortress. Since then, Alcazar has been home to the many monarchs who have taken control of Seville. The initially Islamic structure was renovated by its following rulers; however, the palace’s Islamic roots shine through as many of its Islamic components have been preserved. 

One of the palace’s courtyards, the Patio del Yeso, was created in the 12th century when the region was still under Muslim control. The courtyard features a large pool in the middle—a common theme in Islamic architecture. Water is at the heart of Islamic architecture for both practical and spiritual reasons. Considering that the Arabs and North Africans came from dry climates and desert landscapes, it was important for them to have easy access to reliable sources of water. Furthermore, in Islam, water symbolizes life and purity. Water in gardens, specifically, symbolizes the sacred lake in paradise that is reserved for only the righteous. 

Other recurring Islamic motifs that are found in the Alcazar include keyhole or horseshoe shaped arches, doors and windows; traditional Islamic plasterwork and latticework; Islamic writings; and a heavy presence of plants. The horseshoe arch is known as an “alfiz” and the Islamic-style window screens are known as “mashrabiya.” These, in addition to the icicle-like droppings from ceilings and domes, are common components of modern-day mosques and other traditional Islamic structures. 

The gardens of the Alcazar were used not only for aesthetic purposes, but also for functional purposes. While the plants and trees were grown in the palace’s gardens for beauty, the plants were also used to feed members of the court. The gardens themselves were strategically structured to resemble what Muslims imagined paradise to look like based on the descriptions in the Quran. 

Garden in the Royal Alcazar, Seville. Jocelyn Erskine-Kellie. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Granada

The Alhambra Palace in Granada is further evidence of the Islamic rule in Spain. The name Alhambra itself derives from the Arabic word “Al-Hamra” which means “red.” The palace was given this name for its reddish bricks and walls which can be seen from afar. Alhambra’s layout mimics that of many other palaces for Muslim princes. Three main floor plans dominate the site: the “mexuar” was open to all and the room where sultans received their subjects, the “diwan” is the throne room where receptions were held, and the “harem” is the prince's private quarters. Islamic inscriptions and verses from the Quran flood the walls, while the gold detailing accents the writings. 

 Mosaics and colored tiles in geometric and plant-like shapes, referred to as “alicatado,” are also in certain quarters. The mosaics are not only decorative but also contain strategically chosen tiles to cool the structure in the summertime. Plant motifs align with Islamic principles, as the depiction of human images is often frowned upon. The Fountain of the Lions in Alhambra is one of the most photographed features of  the palace, with 12 lions spewing water in the middle of the courtyard. Other famous aspects of Alhambra which are covered in arabesque patterns and constructed to resemble the gardens in heaven, include the Generalife and El Partal, two of the quieter locations in the palace. 

Keyhole shaped windows with arabesque patterns in Alhambra. Güldem Üstün. CC BY 2.0.

Geometric mosaics in Alhambra. Víctor. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Mia Khatib 

Mia is a rising senior at Boston University majoring in journalism and minoring in international relations. As a Palestinian-American, Mia is passionate about amplifying the voices of marginalized communities and is interested in investigative and data-driven journalism. She hopes to start out as a breaking news reporter and one day earn a position as editor of a major publication..

Amazing Styles of African Architecture

Africa is home to many beautiful styles of architecture, each shaped by the region and time when it developed. 

The Great Mosque of Djenné, Mali. UN Mission in Mali. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 

While most people are familiar with European styles of architecture, such as  Gothic and Renaissance, African architecture is not as frequently showcased. Other than the Pyramids at Giza, Africa’s architectural marvels are relatively little-known. International media often overlooks the cultural, historical and societal diversity of Africa in favor of news that portrays the continent in a negative light. There are a wide variety of architectural styles across Africa, each influenced by their environment and the time when they developed. Below are just three examples of Africa’s many unique architectural styles: Sudano-Sahelian, Afro-Modernist and Swahili. 

1. Sudano-Sahelian 

Sudano-Sahelian architecture is characterized by the use of adobe, mud bricks and wooden-log support beams that jut out of the walls, as well as grassy materials like thatch and reeds which are used for roofing, reinforcement and insulation. The name Sudano-Sahelian refers to the indigenous peoples of the Sahel region in Africa—which extends from modern-day Senegal on the West Coast to Eritrea on the East Coast—and the Sudanian Savanna, just south of the Sahel. The Sudano-Sahel region is semi-arid, with an environment that transitions from the Saraha in the north to tropical deciduous forests in the south; there are both trees and wide, grassy plateaus. The earth is a major building resource in the region, which led to the development of the area’s distinct adobe architecture around 250 B.C. Today, ancient Sudano-Sahelian architecture remains a major influence on many contemporary African architects, such as  Francis Kéré, who wants to showcase African traditions in his architectural projects. 

The courtyard of The Great Mosque at Djenné. Johannes Zielcke. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 

One of the most impressive examples of Sudano-Sahelian architecture is The Great Mosque of Djenné in Djenné, Mali. While the mosque was constructed in 1907, there have been a number of mosques on this same site since the 13th century, all built in the traditional Sudano-Sahelian style. 

Ghana’s Independence Square. CC Chapman. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 

2. Afro-Modernism

Afro-Modernism refers to Africa’s post-colonial experimental architecture boom of the 1960s and 1970s. Thirty-two  African nations declared their independence from European colonial powers between 1957 and 1966. New elected governments ushered in an era of public works projects, including university campuses, banks, hotels and even ceremonial spaces like Ghana’s Independence Square. The architecture of the era largely used concrete, as it was more easily cooled than other materials—a necessity in hot, equatorial climates. Afro-Modernism draws on European styles of architecture; many buildings were designed by European architects. African influence is clearly present as well, though, and African architects like Samuel Opare Larbi were crucial to the movement. Staples of Afro-Modernism include bold shapes and the combination of traditional building materials like adobe with modern materials, such as concrete and steel. 

Some examples of Afro-Modernism include the Kenyatta International Conference Centre in Nairobi, Kenya which has a lily-shaped auditorium; the FIDAK exhibition center in Dakar, Senegal, which is made up of  a number of triangular prisms; and some buildings at the University of Zambia in Lusaka, Zambia, which has various open-air galleries and exposed staircases. 

3. Swahili 

Monumental stone structures dating back to at least the 13th century populate the Swahili Coast, an 1,800-mile stretch along the Indian Ocean in modern-day Tanzania and Kenya. The area is rich with coral limestone, which became a crucial building material for the indigenous Swahili people. 

A close-up of Swahili woodwork. Konstantinos Dafalias. CC BY 2.0

The stone architecture evolved over time to include intricate decorative elements, such as carved door frames and windows with natural and geometric designs. The carvings in Swahili  architecture date back to the 17th century, with the earliest known example being from 1694. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the practice of stone and wood carving grew more widespread. Carvers drew influence from architecture and art overseas, including neo-Gothic, British Raj and Indian Gujarati styles. 

A carved stone door in Lamu, Kenya. Justin Clements. CC BY 2.0 

 Kenya’s Lamu Old Town is the oldest and most well-preserved Swahili settlement on the Swahili Coast. Lamu Old Town is constructed from coral limestone and mangrove timber and has been continuously inhabited for over 700 years. The Stone Town of Zanzibar, on Unguja Island, is another excellent example of Swahili architecture, especially the blending of African, Arabian, Indian and European influences. Both of these towns have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. 

Sudano-Sahelian, Afro-Modernist and Swahili architecture are only three of Africa’s wide variety of architectural styles. Others include Somali, Afro-Federal, Nigerian and Ethiopian. For more stunning pictures of African architecture, visit this Twitter thread. 

Rachel Lynch

Rachel is a student at Sarah Lawrence College in Bronxville, NY currently taking a semester off. She plans to study Writing and Child Development. Rachel loves to travel and is inspired by the places she’s been and everywhere she wants to go. She hopes to educate people on social justice issues and the history and culture of travel destinations through her writing.

7 of the World’s Most Beautiful Libraries 

These libraries demonstrate some of the world’s most jaw-dropping examples of architecture, ranging from Gothic and Renaissance to contemporary. 

Libraries are havens of information. They are key in preserving the written history, culture and heritage of an area, and are often intricately designed, with architecture that is sure to impress visitors. Libraries are sometimes just as impressive from an architectural standpoint as they are from a literary one, and these seven libraries provide prime examples of stunning architecture. They are all widely different, some dating to medieval times and some opening as recently as the early 2000s. Each one, though, has a style that will make patrons eager to get lost in the stacks, from translucent floors and floating shelves to ancient frescoes and sustainable construction. 

1. Biblioteca Vasconcelos, Mexico 

Mexico City’s Biblioteca Vasconcelos spans over 400,000 square feet and has a unique, whimsical design that mimics the feeling of being lost in a book. Photographer James Florio described Biblioteca Vasconcelos as “like entering an alternate universe.” The library, which opened in 2006, features translucent walls and floors, multistory windows, mismatched levels, and a labyrinth of balconies and pathways that seem to float above the ground level. Often referred to as a “megalibrary,” Biblioteca Vasconcelos holds hundreds of thousands of titles. In addition to the stunning interior architecture and endless books to browse, the grounds of Biblioteca Vasconcelos are home to an extensive botanical garden. Architect Alberto Kalach designed the building and grounds to promote ecological regeneration, turning a barren plot of land into one overflowing with plants and information. 

2. The Library of El Escorial, Spain

The Library of El Escorial is located within the Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, a vast building complex located about 30 miles from Madrid. The complex, which includes a monastery, church, royal palace, college and library, was conceived by King Philip II and built during the mid-to-late 1500s. Each building in the complex reflects the ornate architecture of the Spanish Renaissance, and the interiors are decorated with sprawling frescoes, paintings and sculptures by notable Spanish and Italian artists from the 16th and 17th centuries, like El Greco. The library itself, also known as the Royal Library, is made up of many rooms, but today only the Main Hall is open to visitors. The Main Hall is 177 feet long, 30 feet wide and 33 feet high, and gives visitors a good look at the stunning frescoes, woodwork and ancient books. El Escorial Library holds more than 40,000 printed books, as well as 4,700 manuscripts, many dating back to the era when the library was constructed. El Escorial was the first library to do away with book bays, instead placing bookshelves up against the walls where the collection could better be admired. 

3. Tama Art University Library, Japan

In the Tokyo suburbs, on the campus of Tama Art University, is the Tama Art University Library, a two-story building with massive arches and floor-to-ceiling windows. These arches are made of steel but coated in pure concrete, offering up a unique look developed by the building’s designer, Toyo Ito. Inside, the library is mostly one continuous space on each floor, with the only divisions between areas coming from shelves, study desks, glass partitions and more arches. This way, the library is divided into sections in a way that doesn’t interrupt the flow of the room. The windows allow library patrons to gaze out over one of the campus’s lush gardens, and the library is full of reference books for the university’s students. It was added to the campus in 2007 as a common space. 

4. Royal Portuguese Cabinet of Reading, Brazil

The Royal Portuguese Cabinet of Reading is located in the center of Rio de Janeiro and contains the largest collection of Portuguese books outside of Portugal, with over 350,000 titles. Three towering stories of books rise above the library’s open floor, leading to a stained-glass dome overhead. The library was built in the 1880s, after a group of 43 Portuguese immigrants and political refugees living in Brazil decided they wanted a way to preserve their written culture and heritage. Statues of important Portuguese figures, including writers and explorers, are placed throughout the library. The exterior of the building similarly preserves Portuguese history; Rafael da Silva e Castro, the library’s architect, designed the building in the style of 16th-century Portuguese architecture, and the library’s facade is made of Lisbon stone brought to Rio de Janeiro by ship. The library is open for visitors, publishes a journal on Portuguese literature and culture, and offers college-level courses on literature, history, anthropology, the arts and the Portuguese language. 

5. Bodleian Old Library, England

The Bodleian Libraries are a group of 28 libraries across Oxford, England, that are all part of the Oxford University system. Bodleian Old Library is the principal university library and the oldest of the group, having been in use since the 1300s. Bodleian Old Library houses over 12 million printed works, including first editions of Charles Darwin’s “On the Origin of Species” and Jane Austen’s “Emma.” The historic library looks like a castle, with magnificent, grand-scale Gothic architecture that has been featured in films like the “Harry Potter” series. As well as housing a jaw-dropping number of books, Bodleian Old Library contains the Divinity School, Oxford’s oldest teaching and examination room. Visitors to the library need to purchase tickets for a tour, where they will see the Divinity School, Duke Humfrey’s medieval library, and the library’s stunning Upper and Lower Reading Rooms. 

6. Beitou Public Library, Taiwan

The Beitou Public Library in Taipei, Taiwan, was the island’s first certified “green building,” constructed in 2006. The library is on the grounds of the Beitou Park, which is famous for its hot springs, and was designed to look like a large treehouse. It is built mainly of wood, boasts large French windows and fits seamlessly into its surrounding environment. Beitou Public Library qualifies as a green building under Taiwan’s “Ecology, Energy Saving, Waste Reduction and Health” (EEWH) certification system, which aims to reduce the impact of buildings on the natural environment. The wood used for the library was harvested from managed forests rather than primary rainforests, the windows allow for natural lighting and cooling, part of the roof is covered in solar panels, another section is covered in a layer of soil to improve thermal insulation, and the roof’s slope allows for runoff from rain to be collected and used in the library’s plumbing. Views from the Beitou Public Library are gorgeous, as it looks out onto Beitou Park, and the library contains over 20,000 English and Chinese titles. 

7. Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt

Billed as the “New Library of Alexandria,” Bibliotheca Alexandrina sits along the harbor of Alexandria, Egypt, and contains six specialized libraries, 12 academic research centers, a planetarium and several museums. The library opened in 2002 and aspires to “recapture the spirit of the original library of Alexandria,” which was destroyed centuries ago. The complex receives about 1.5 million visitors each year, all flocking to experience the incredible volume of knowledge the library offers and to admire the beauty of the complex itself. The library stands 11 stories high and is notable for its circular and tilted shape, as well as its surrounding reflecting pool. Bibliotheca Alexandrina mixes a contemporary exterior design with an interior that holds thousands of years of knowledge.

Rachel Lynch

Rachel is a student at Sarah Lawrence College in Bronxville, NY currently taking a semester off. She plans to study Writing and Child Development. Rachel loves to travel and is inspired by the places she’s been and everywhere she wants to go. She hopes to educate people on social justice issues and the history and culture of travel destinations through her writing.

A Glimpse at Ethiopia’s Medieval Rock-Hewn Churches 

A group of 11 churches in Lalibela, Ethiopia, has been known for centuries as the “New Jerusalem.” The churches were carved from the natural rock of the landscape during medieval times and are a popular pilgrimage site for Ethiopian Orthodox Christians. 

Lalibela, located in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, is home to 11 monolithic churches, each carved from the rocky landscape. The square and rectangular churches burrow more than 150 feet into the ground. Tall walls of rock rise around the churches on all sides, with their roofs sitting at the height of the natural rock. Worshippers and visitors at the churches access them through narrow, sloping staircases, and series of tunnels and passageways connect the churches to each other and to other religious areas like catacombs. Everything in each church is carved from the same rocky mass, including windows, doors, pillars, stairways and all decorative elements. Ethiopia is home to over 200 rock-hewn churches, but these 11, which make up a UNESCO World Heritage Site, are some of the best maintained and most impressive examples of this type of architecture.

Lalibela’s churches are intricate, awe-inspiring structures. Situated at the base of Mount Abuna Yosef is a rocky massif, a large, rigid section of the Earth’s crust. Ancient workers carved the 11 churches out of the rock from the top down, first isolating the outline of each structure and then sculpting the inside and the fine, ornamental details of the outer walls. The Lalibela church complex is divided into two sections of five churches separated by the River Jordan, one group on the north side and one on the south, and a lone church farther to the west. The churches date to the medieval era, and scholars agree that they were likely constructed in four or five phases between the seventh and 13th centuries. 

Ethiopian tradition credits King Lalibela, who ruled during the 12th century, with the creation of the churches. In the king's laudatory biography, it is written that angels helped him carve the churches over a period of 24 years. According to tradition, King Lalibela ordered the construction of the churches as a “New Jerusalem.” He is said to have visited Jerusalem just before the city was overtaken by Muslim forces, halting Christian pilgrimages to the Holy Land. Ethiopia has been officially Christian since 330 A.D. and claims to be the oldest Christian country in the world, so the story of King Lalibela and the rock-hewn churches fits into the country’s history. 

In reality, the earlier structures in the Lalibela complex were most likely constructed for civic rather than religious purposes, serving as royal palaces or fortresses before later being converted into churches. Though not all of the Lalibela churches initially served as churches, the complex became known as a “New Jerusalem” and has been a popular pilgrimage site since the late 12th century. The churches remain a pilgrimage site today, and host daily religious services. 

 Aside from the large numbers of worshippers that gather each day, Lalibela’s phenomenal churches draw curious visitors. Guided tours of the complex are available, and travelers can also explore on their own. The most popular church among visitors to Lalibela is Bete Giyorgis, the Church of St. George, which forms the shape of a cross when viewed from above. Bete Giyorgis is the church that stands alone, not part of the northern or southern groups, but it can be accessed from the other churches through the system of carved passages. The wonders of Lalibela’s 11 churches contain centuries of Ethiopian history and remain magnificent examples of a very unique architectural feat. 

Rachel Lynch

Rachel is a student at Sarah Lawrence College in Bronxville, NY currently taking a semester off. She plans to study Writing and Child Development. Rachel loves to travel and is inspired by the places she’s been and everywhere she wants to go. She hopes to educate people on social justice issues and the history and culture of travel destinations through her writing.

Brilliant Bushes: The History of Topiary and Where to Find Them

It seems that grand landscapes are incomplete without some unique plant life to adorn the surrounding grounds. The untraditional category of gardening known as topiary has become famous over thousands of years for its intricate, and often grandiose, art style. 

Rabbit topiary in Bangkok. Arthur Chapman. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

The Origins of Topiary

The exact year that topiary was invented remains unknown, but it is generally believed that it began around the first century with the Greeks. Topiary, the art of clipping plants into decorative shapes, was believed to be very complementary to the elaborate form of Greek architecture, so topiary found a good foundation in Greek culture. The joy of topiary eventually spread to nearby countries, with Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus being the next famous face to take part in the art. The proliferation of French monasteries later helped to push topiary across Europe. 

As hundreds of years passed, many more nations weaved topiary into the foundation of their decorative landscapes. The art itself also grew incredibly precise and complex. The French primarily created larger and less intricate designs to line their gardens, while the Dutch used mathematics to master finely clipped designs. 

Interest in topiary has wavered over the last few hundred years, but love for the art form has never disappeared. In the 1800s, the introduction of new plants through trade with Asia caused an explosion in topiary interest, but this interest then faded again after World War I. 

Two Top Topiaries 

Levens Hall Topiary Garden. Jenny Mackness. CC BY-NC 2.0. 

For topiary enthusiasts and clueless travelers alike, Levens Hall Topiary Garden guarantees a moment of awe. Sitting in the Lake District of northwest England, this garden is the oldest topiary garden in the world; some pieces are over 300 years old. It was started by the gardener of King James II and originally housed a simpler layout, but faced a fairly dramatic change about a century after it was made. When interest in topiary experienced one of its many dips, the garden was redesigned in the early 1800s to display Victorian shapes.

Gardens of Marqueyssac. Andy Lawson. CC BY 2.0. 

The French are famous for their clipped hedge style, but the gardens of Marqueyssac have evolved this style immensely. The garden is located by the Dordogne River, which creates an incredible view of the endless countryside when seen from the elevated areas of the garden. The hedges display a traditional box clipping style, but the swirling pattern makes them appear weaved together. The masterfully uniform design creates an illusion of an endless sea of hedge; this work is credited to a student of Andre Le Notre, who designed the gardens of Versailles. 

Although overlooked by many mainstream artists, the form of topiary is not to be underestimated. For countless years, topiary has become an elaborate foundation for landscape and architecture. It has embedded its way into cultures across the world, only further enabling artists to express their limitless imagination. 

Ella Nguyen

Ella is an undergraduate student at Vassar College pursuing a degree in Hispanic Studies. She wants to assist in the field of immigration law and hopes to utilize Spanish in her future projects. In her free time she enjoys cooking, writing poetry, and learning about cosmetics.

7 Architectural Marvels of Tashkent that Reveal Uzbekistan’s History

Tashkent, the capital of Uzbekistan, boasts of its opulent infrastructure and the nation’s history to a world audience. 

Amir Temur Square in Tashkent’s center. Matthew Goulding. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Glistening skyscrapers are built over historic neighborhoods, while ancient mosques and some Soviet-era buildings are left unscathed. Tashkent, Uzbekistan, has been dramatically shape-shifted by the late president Islam Karimov and the current president Shavkat Mirziyoyev. As the city gets reconstructed, some of its rich history remains: Tashkent’s mosques, Soviet-style subway stations, classical opera houses and theaters, and traditional Russian architecture draw in many visitors. Here are seven sites which each represent distinct eras in Tashkent’s tumultuous history. 

Museum of Applied Arts in Tashkent. Ehedaya. CC0 1.0

1. Museum of Applied Arts

In the early 20th century, Russian aristocrat Alexander Polovtsov ordered that a mansion be made to showcase Uzbek architecture and craftsmanship. After Polovtsov’s death, the mansion was turned into a museum in 1937, where its interior was further remodeled. This structure’s interior is entirely covered in ornamentation, displaying key components of Islamic architectural design such as the “girih,” a pattern made up of many intricate lines, arabesque stucco, and zellij, a mosaic of individually crafted pieces which create a motif. At the center of its main room is a stunning muqarna, an inverted dome carved to an exacting honeycombed configuration; this centerpiece is embellished with flora-inspired stucco designs and individually painted tiles which resemble the stained-glass windows of a chapel. 

Close-up of Barak Khan Madrassa’s facade. LBM1948. CC-BY-SA 4.0.

2. Hazrati Imam Complex

Larger-than-life mosques and mausoleums border a wide square where visitors stroll around in awe, either on a pilgrimage or simply admiring the grandiosity of the minarets and domes. The Hazrati Imam Complex is a conglomerate of historically significant monuments; its most notable sites are the Muyi Muborak Madrassa, the Barak Khan Madrassa and the Tillya Sheikh Mosque. Originally built in the 16th century as a tomb for one of the first imams of Tashkent, the complex drastically changed over the following centuries. Tillya Sheikh Mosque is a stately rectangular building with tall minarets topped with vibrant turquoise domes. The structure’s most notable features are its Central Asian architectural design, the panjara, which is a patterned lattice grid, and its geometrically carved pillars. The Muyi Muborak Madrassa (meaning “sacred hair”) is the most significant monument in this ensemble, since it is said to house the hair of the Prophet Muhammad and the oldest Quran, which dates back to 656 A.D. The library’s walls are mostly a neutral beige, but its arches and domes are covered in arabesques of colorful tiles. The Barak Khan Madrassa displays a stunning facade covered in floral motifs, Arabic calligraphy inscriptions, and geometric linework. At the madrassa’s center is an inverted dome with miniature arches and an open walkway into the building. 

The Palace of the Romanovs in Tashkent. Jude Lee. CC BY 2.0.

3. The Palace of the Romanovs 

Although Tashkent is architecturally diverse, this oddly Baroque estate near its center looks alien in a city full of Soviet modernism and traditional Islamic architecture. Left behind by Grand Duke Nicholas Kostantinovich Romanov who was exiled from Russia for a scandalous love affair near the end of the 19th century, this palace embodies the international art nouveau. The building is predominantly monochromatic, as opposed to the vibrant color palette of traditional Islamic architecture. It flaunts a combination of its neoclassical base structure, extravagant gothic stucco work and Asiatic lattices. Bronze sculptures of deer and hounds sit precariously at the entrance of the mansion above a staircase to greet the visitors. The palace’s interior is more decadent: beds are covered in textiles with gold and silver thread weavings, valuable metal trinkets decorate its hallways, and Uzbek wood carvings adorn its walls. The Palace of the Romanovs reminds one of Russia’s pre-Soviet occupation of Uzbekistan, which used to be the colony of Turkestan. 

Hotel Uzbekistan. Giorgio Montersino. CC BY-SA 2.0.

4.  Hotel Uzbekistan

Hotel Uzbekistan is flat, precise and mathematical. The building itself is a towering sheet of metal with no variation in pattern or shape. Standing as a remarkable display of Soviet modernism from the 1970s, this hotel is a relic of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic. The typical brutalist architecture often paired with Soviet aesthetics is made flexible in this structure, as shown in its lattice pattern found in Islamic architecture.

In the evening, the fountain lights up in front of the Alisher Navoi Opera House. Dan Lundberg. CC BY-SA 2.0.

 5.  The Alisher Navoi Opera House 

Romanesque pillars hold up this neoclassical beauty at the heart of Tashkent. At the front of this mainly Western-style theater is a remarkable fountain that stretches to the width of the building itself. Its distinctively European charm can be traced back to the classical architecture of czarist Russia. The Alisher Navoi Opera House was designed by Soviet architect Alexey Shchusev under Josef Stalin’s call to redesign Tashkent after World War II. Shchusev’s approach to building cultural institutions, including the famous Lenin’s Mausoleum, was to marry the decorative elements of Russian classicism with the structural integrity of Soviet brutalism. The space of the theater itself is adorned with arabesque etchings on its balconies and gold embellishments bordering the stage. Today, the Alisher Navoi Opera House remains a central playhouse for ballets, musical performances and plays. 

Minor Mosque sitting along the banks of Anhor Canal. Michael Kim. CC BY-ND 2.0.

6. Minor Mosque

Minor Mosque is a fairly new religious center which opened in 2014 under Islam Karimov’s presidency. Although the mosque follows the traditional structure with its two minarets and its sky-blue dome, it is completely different in material. Instead of being made a typical brown-toned brick base, the mosque is a glaringly white marble, making it a sight to behold. Its facade is decorated with curling floral patterns and Quran passages. Minor Mosque is a feat of Uzbek architectural accomplishment after its independence. The new site seems to reaffirm the country’s Islamic roots, while boasting of its modernization.

Pakhtakor Station has classical pillars and an arabesque mosaic on its walls. Valentin Parshin. CC0 1.0.

 7. Tashkent Subway System

Tashkent’s subway system is full of mosaic art, chandeliers and echoes of Soviet attempts at excellence. First opened in 1977 at the height of the Cold War arms race, Tashkent subway stations doubled as nuclear bomb shelters. Much like the famously extravagant subway stations in Russia, Tashkent’s are built with the utmost acuity to detail and order. 

Uzbekistan’s ongoing efforts to reform its Soviet past and its recent history under Islam Karimov are clearly expressed in the tearing down of older structures. As the city’s historic mahallas are demolished for the construction of shopping malls, new buildings threaten Tashkent’s original residences. Each monumental building in Tashkent is telling of Uzbekistan’s past under Russian occupation, its Islamic influences, and its encounters with globalization. Tashkent is a melting pot of architectural forms, and in some ways, the noteworthy buildings are used as both markers for national identity and foreign allure.  

Heather Lim

Heather recently earned her B.A. in Literatures in English from University of California, San Diego. She was editor of the Arts and Culture section of The Triton, a student-run newspaper. She plans on working in art criticism, which combines her love of visual art with her passion for journalism.

Living in the Netherlands’ Futuristic Homes

Located about an hour outside Amsterdam is a village of spherical homes straight out of your futuristic fantasies. From a distance, Bolwoningen’s domes appear to be a set of golf balls, but up close, they are the architectural masterpiece of Dutch artist and sculptor Dries Kreijkamp. Built in 1984, each home contains three levels with round windows that give view to the scenic canal. The intent of the complex was to bring residents closer to nature. Although the designer has since passed, his legacy continues to live on in.